Human Resource Management in China

Human Resource Management according to Ledge (2005) is the management of a workforce; it can be both an academic theory and business practice. In addition Price (2004) defined human resource management as a belief of people management on the idea that human resources are significant factors in maintaining the success of a business. He discussed that a company obtains a competitive advantage by practicing an efficient usage of its personnel, using their expertise and creativity to reach the organisation’s purposes. Moreover, Human Resource Management (HRM) is seeking to employ capable, flexible and committed personnel. In contradiction, Bach (2005) stated that HRM is unitarist, the interests of employees and other stakeholders are marginalized, there is a great importance on the individual firm that is channeled on each employee, there is a logical playing down of external and collective issues.
Even though authors differ in their views regarding Human Resource Management, it still remains an important factor in the success and failure of an organization. Human Resource Management has different models, in which the company applies; Price (2004) enumerated the different models. The Harvard model is one of the most influential models of Human Resource Management, the Harvard model was developed by Beer and colleagues in 1984 and it views employees as resources. It outlines four Human Resource policies: (a) Human Resource Flows which includes recruitment, selection, placement and promotion. (b) Rewards System which includes the payment system (c) Employees Influence that includes levels of authority and responsibility (d) Work Systems which includes the definition of work. These four HR policies will lead to Commitment, Congruence, Competence and Cost Effectiveness. The University of Essex (2006) enumerated the strengths of this model and these are: managers were portrayed as situated choice-making actors, the importance of stakeholders is acknowledged in a wider society and admission of bargained nature of workplace relations. On the other hand, there are weaknesses on this model and these are: the commitment to bargaining is weak, the model is prescriptive, and it does not give an understandable theoretical comprehension of the nature of feedback and linkages between elements.

The next model that Price discussed is the Michigan Model; it was developed by Formbrum and colleagues in 1984, it demands human resources strategy to have a tight fit in the strategy of the business in the overall aspect. It has four common Human Resource Processes: (a) Selection in which the organization matches the people to jobs (b) Appraisal of the performance of the employees (c) Rewards in which it stresses the real importance of salaries in obtaining results (d) Developing the skilled individuals. The strengths of this model is it offers a simple commonsense rule of human resource management, it focuses the significance of “internal coherence”, highlights on matching the internal strategies to the external needs and focuses a key tension in HRM practice. The weaknesses of this model are it tends to prescription, it is focused on market and organizational needs, it states little regarding stakeholders and their interest and the status of model is unclear. (University of Essex, 2006)

According to the Asia Pacific Management Forum (2006), years ago, Human Resource Management is almost an alienated term in Asia. The organizations in Asia do not have an idea that an efficient management of employees had a major effect on the performance of an organization. Universities did not offer any units in psychology and governments ignored subjects such as management and Human Resources.

China is the country having the biggest population in the world, and because of the booming economy of the country, investors are flocking in China. Fang Lee Cooke (2005) wrote that China has one of the largest and highest labor forces in the world having a population of 1.3 billion. Moreover, the author discussed that when China opened its economy it had great effects on a number of sectors. A lot of workers are having a wide opportunity in terms of employment and career choices and because of these the employers are meeting more pressure in terms of quality, adaptability and enhancement of the performance of employees. Introduction of new Human Resource Management is needed in order to address this issue.

And prior to the Open Policy in 1979 China did not practice Human Resource Management., the management of people in China was different and has many special characteristics; according to Budhwar and Debrah (2001) the People’s Republic of China manages its employees through renshi guanli or personnel management. In personnel management, the recruitment, selection, rewards system, disciplinary measures is concerned with the “bread and butter” activities, any company has to execute a set of procedures according of this kind. China has a centrally planned economy before opening up to the world market and made its transition to a socialist market economy. There have been a number of problems the foreign investors faced when their companies established in China. Zhu and Dowling (1994) discussed that training and development of the employees in China is needed because of the low efficiency and productivity in the enterprises in China added the fact that there is relatively poor educational background of Chinese workers and there is an unsuitable match of the skills and requirements for the job.
And because of cheap labors in China a number of companies have import their managers to China. However, the foreign workers encountered problems in the workforce. In the study conducted by Schack (1997) Taiwanese managers told the problems with local workers in China such as poor job commitment and work discipline, high turnover rates, not interested in learning new skills, intergroup hostilities and poor training and education. In addition, Chow and Luk (1996) made a comparative study on women managers in China and Hong Kong the study revealed that managers from China were not as mature as in Hong Kong. Women managers in Hong Kong regarded their job as a path to career development while managers in China regarded the monetary reward as their motivation for the job. Moreover, Hong Kong managers concentrate on planning whereas managers in China concentrate on directing.
Furthermore, Ahlstrom, Bruton, and Chan (2000) discussed the challenges a firm faces in Human Resources when establishing a business in China. First, is on the selection, in China connections is important in facilitating a business without connections the business will be in a slow process, another challenge in the selection process is the belief of the government in which private firms should be absorbing excess employees from state-owned companies, in which leads to overstaffing in private firms, and empire-building is also a challenge in the selection process. Next is Training and Development, the Chinese Employees are risk averse and seldom takes initiative. The third is on Appraisal and Reward, the appraisal on the performance for non-production revealed to be a problem and loyalty of employees is hard to get. And finally Control and Socialization, the top managers use the firm’s money to use for their own personal needs without paying interests, the iron rice bowl mentality of Chinese workers does not fit well in the private sectors in which most of the companies are owned by foreign investors.
As stated earlier, foreign firms have are facing challenges regarding the Human Resource Management in China. In alleviating the challenges the organizations must do something like on the Selection process, the organization can diminish if not eliminate the challenges brought about by connections, through establishing strong social networks with other foreign firms with the same product or making the company visible to the community in order to develop strong networks that have access to right people and resources. And on the overstaffing of clients, Ahlstrom et al discussed that overstaffing can also be an advantage because some of the workers know connections that could enhance the organization in terms of production or elsewhere. And in empire building, the organizations must be watchful that the employees will not recruit their friends and family members that do not fit in the job qualifications.

In Training and Development, it has been studied quite a number of times on the inefficiency and mismatch of workforce in China, in order to address this issue on the organization, the workers should be trained properly on what not to do and do on their job including the top managers. Learning new skills must be installed in the minds of the workers and explain to them the benefits of learning the new skills. An example is in the study of Shack in which the Taiwanese managers adopted production-based remuneration, fines, employee education and attention to welfare and satisfaction. In addition Weldon and Vahonacker (1999) suggested that work firms in China written job descriptions must always be updated because Chinese employees wants written rules and regulations.
In Appraisal and Rewards, organizations must imposed fines on top managers that cause more of a problem than a help to the firm via moving him or her to a lower position or even firing the manager. Giving more incentives and good compensation packages to the employees must also be done to retain them.
In control and socialization, managers that spend the company’s money on their extracurricular activities must either be fired if proven guilty or demoted from the position if the involvement is minimal. However, instilling the value of competitiveness and socializing must be done not only to the managers as well as the production employees. Weldon and Vanhonacker stated that some firms hire new graduates in which the value of aggressive socializing and professionalism are taught and nurtured via mentoring.

Shifting from personnel management to Human Resource management has generated advantages. By employing Human Resource Management of private firms there is a considerable difference between the satisfaction of employees in the joint venture and state-owned companies. According to the study of Egri and Yu (2005) the employees of the joint venture are more contented with the HRM of joint venture enterprises than in state-owned enterprise.
The Harvard Model of Human Resource Management is the best practice model can be applied in China, as discussed earlier the Harvard Model thinks employees as resources. And when a company thinks its employees as a useful and essential support in increasing the production and profit of the company, therefore the organization will scrutinize the recruits for placements and will give good compensation packages for good performing employees.

In the book of Armstrong (2003) he wrote that according to Beer et al the founders of Harvard framework the model is based on the philosophy that the issues of historical personnel management can only be resolved when the top managers produced a perspective on involving the employees in enhancing the organization and the HRM policies that the company may use to attain the objectives. Without a central belief or strategic vision, provided by the managers, the Human Resource Management is most likely to stay as a set of self-governing activities, in which each activity is maneuvered by its own practice.

Beer et al stated, as cited in the book of Armstrong, that there are many pressures that requires a wider, extensive and more strategic viewpoint with consideration on the human resources of an organization. Long-tem views in the management of personnel and regarding people as prospective assets that a variable cost.

The concept of Harvard model has been expanded by Walton (as cited by Armstrong), that gives emphasis on commitment and mutuality. Walton stated that the new model of Human Resource Management is made up of policies that advance mutuality such as mutual goals, influence, respect, rewards and responsibility. Walton’s belief is that programs promoting mutuality will evoke commitment that will lead to better economic performance and greater human development.

And according to Walton a best practice model stresses commitment than compliance and argues in favor of procedures on culture management in order to attain cultural control. In which the Harvard model displays.

David Guest (as cited by Armstrong), have expanded the Harvard model and defined four policy goals: The Strategic Integration, High Commitment, High Quality and Flexibility. He believes that the search for competitive advantage in the market via supplying high-quality products and services by having a competitive price associated with high productivity and the ability to introduce and manage change in reaction to the modifications in the market and the progress of research and development.

As mentioned earlier is the most influential HR Management model of all. The model can be used to almost all firms whether private or public owned in China because the basis of the model is that employees are as important as shareholders and customers and that the companies must address their needs. And as stated earlier one of the challenges of a company in China is loyalty of employees, by letting the employees know they are equally important as customers by in the for of good compensation packages the work force will retain and will not look for another company.
In applying the Harvard model the important stakeholders must be taken account first because the stakeholders have the power on the programs of the Human Resource Management. Fleming (n.d.) identified the key stakeholders that have influence in the HRM policy.
Government. According to Fleming, government has the authority on the public sectors, just like in China where most of the companies are state-owned, the government has the power to change and reform the policies, shifting from personnel management to a Harvard model of HRM.
Management. The second key stakeholder Fleming identified is the management according to Storey (1992), the ability of Harvard model to draw the managers to carry out consistency, direction and structure to the policies on employees that are already old fashioned and cannot be utilized to address the requirements. The top managements of both state-owned and private owned companies in China have the capacity to improve the outdated policies of the Human Resources.

Unions. The union is the third key stakeholder Fleming determined. According to Guest (1995) Human Resource Management is defined by a number of people including Bach as unitarist in form, and it only focuses more on the outlook of the management which serves as a threat to labor unions. However in the context of the Harvard model which the groups of employees such as the labor unions are an important component. There has been a relationship among key stakeholders; the relationship gives labor unions an opportunity to participate in the reform policies within the organization. In this way, the employees can be assured regarding their employment stability as well as the company will be assured on the loyalty of the employees.

According to Fleming, an important matter in the HRM models including Harvard model is integration. Guest, (as cited by Fleming) identified three levels of integration.
• Integration with business strategy
• Integration with HRM policies.
• Integration with the line management function.

Integration with Strategy. Guest (1987) defined the Strategic integration in the Harvard model as the capacity of a company to incorporate issues on HRM into its strategic plans, assure that the diverse phases of HRM adhere and provide the managers to integrate a viewpoint of the HRM in to decision-making. In state-owned companies in China associating the HRM with the strategy in business will pose a difficulty because of different purposes, stakeholders and procedures. An example, if a state-owned company incites a strategic goal of delivering more efficient service to the public, the Human Resource management will develop and train the employees, however due to the mismatch of workers there the goal of giving better service will be impaired. On the other hand, the entrance of foreign investors since the open door policy provided new ideas regarding HRM in which it provided the opportunity for top management of public sectors to learn and eventually will incorporate the policies in their own firms.

Integration with HRM policies. Fleming discusses that in developing an integrated HRM policy, it is important to evaluate the responsibilities of the Human resources at a central level. He wrote that by assessing first at a central level, policies can be identified whether it retain on the central level or not. According to Taylor (n.d.) in the Harvard model policies are influenced by different stakeholders in which were stated earlier. By having representatives on the different sectors of the organization an integrated HRM policy will be developed balancing the various interests of the stakeholders.

Integration with the line management function. Chinese workers as mentioned in the study of Ahlstrom et al have the mentality of “do more, risk making more mistakes; do less, make fewer mistakes; do nothing, make no mistakes.” In order to have a successful transfer of HRM from the central level to line managers, the Chinese managers must be trained to take the responsibility on the management issues on his or her department. A challenge when establishing business in China, in which public and private firms must face.

The Harvard model of Human Resource Management can be applied in almost all the private organizations in China. However, application of the Harvard Model in the state-owned organizations will be quite a challenge since China is a Socialist nation. Although Harvard Model is the most influential and popular model among the Human Resource Management, the state-owned organizations will not find it difficult to apply it in their own firms. As the trend of globalization occurs nowadays, the private and public organizations will adhere to Human Resource Managements in order to enhance the production and capability of its employees, in which will lead to better revenues and sales for the company as well as good compensation packages for its employees. The Harvard Model of HRM will still face a number of challenges when implementing it for the first time in China where the rice bowl mentality of workers still exists. Different measures must be made to ensure that the employees are well taken care of by the organization, to avoid losing the workers to other firms offering better salary and compensation. The Harvard model is the best practice and high performance HRM that can be applied in an emerging economy such as China according to Taylor, it can represent the multiple constituencies’ strand of industrial sociology, the multiple needs of psychological contract and the relational contracting element of the perspective of economics.



References:
Ahlstrom, D., Bruton, G.D. and Chan, E.S. 2000. “Foreign Firms in China: Facing
Human Resources Challenges in a Transitional Economy.” SAM Advanced Management Journal. Vol. 65 No. 4, p. 4
Armstrong, M. 2003. A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice.
Kogan Page
Bach, S. 2005. Managing Human Resources: Personnel Management in
Transition. Blackwell Publishing.
Budwhar, P.S. and Debrah, Y.A. 2001. Human Resource Management in
Developing Countries. Routledge
Chow, W.S. and Luk, V.W.M. 1996. “Management in the 1990s: A comparative
study of women managers in China and Hong Kong.” Journal of Managerial Psychology. Vol.11 No.1. pp. 24-36
Fang Le Cooke. 2005. HRM, Work and Employment in China. Routledge
From Personnel Management to HRM: Key Issues and Challenges Flemming, S.
n.d. Committee for Public Management Research, viewed 6, November 2006
Guest, D. 1987, “Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations”, Journal of Management, Vol. 24(5) pp. 503-21.
Human Resource Management. 2006. Asia Pacific Mangement Forum, viewed 6,
November, 2006
Legge, K. 2005. Human Resource Management: Rhetorics and Realities.
Anniversary Ed. Macmillan
Price, A. 2004. Human Resource Management in a Business Context (2nd
Edition). Thomson Learning
Schack, D.C. 1997. “Taiwanese labour management in China.” Employee
Relations. Vol.19 No. 4 pp. 365-373
Storey, J. 1992, Developments in the Management of HRM - An Analytical
Review, Oxford: Blackwell
Taylor, H. n.d. The Employment Relationship in Organisations in Less
Developed Countries, viewed 6, November 2006
Weldon, E., & Vanhonacker, W. (1999, Spring). “Operating a foreign-invested
enterprise in China: Challenges for managers and management researcher.” Journal of World Business, Vol.34 No.1, pp. 94-107.
What is Human Resource Management Anyway? 2006. University of Essex,
viewed 6, November 2006
Yu, B.B. and Egri, C.P. 2005. “Human resource management practices and
affective organizational commitment: A comparison of Chinese employees
in a state-owned enterprise and a joint venture,” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 332-360

Zhu, C.J. and Dowling, P.J. 1994. “The Impact of the Economic System upon
Human Resource Management.” Human Resource Planning. Vol. 17 No. 4 pp. 1+

The Consequences of Scientific Innovation: on History’s Lenses

Introduction

The idea of innovation is not complete without the presence of “something new”. Innovation is often lexically defined as the act or process of introducing a new idea, method, or device. According to Edquist (1997), it is the introduction of new-fangled ideas, goods, services, and practices which are essentially intended to be constructive. Scientific innovation, in this case, is practically the introduction of latest advances in technology and its standard applications. This term is also synonymous to technological innovation. Historically, scientific innovations or technological inventions marked out majority of the important dates in the previous centuries particularly their advantageous effects to aspects of human life such as economy, commerce, society, culture, and the entire humanity. In business for instance, it provided technological capabilities to firms as the intrinsic ability to distribute available resources within the context of the firm provided the deliberate target of coming up with competitive products (Cantwell 1994; Cohen & Levinthal 1990; Teece & Pisano 1994). It is said that everyone is aware of the consequences of scientific innovations, may it be constructive or destructive in nature.

This research is focused on the historical perspective of the consequences of scientific innovation. It evaluates the effects of science and technology in the overall conditions of human life. Guided by the natural idea of man is born to be in quest for absolute knowledge and perfection, the research aims to provide assessment on how man developed or affected by scientific and technological innovations.

Statement of Problem

This research study focuses on the effects of scientific and technological innovation on people and history. It specifically seeks to provide solution to the following problems:

(1) What are the key aspects of human life that are said to be affected by scientific and technological innovations?

(2) What are the positive and negative consequences of scientific and technological innovations?

(3) How do these consequences affect humanity?

Literature Review

Much has been written about innovations as it refers to various area of application such as technology, business, social systems, economic development, and policy creation. Fagerberg and colleagues (2004) specifically Fagerberg worked on providing guide in studying the literature of innovations. Innovations is applied to various field of expertise that is why, it is needed to be classified and pointed. In this case, the literatures involved looks on various aspects of scientific and technological innovations and its given consequences.

Wallace (2004) explores scientific and technological innovation as a societal and institutional process and improves the historical account of machinery and the industrial revolution by blending it with the histories of the families, politicians, engineers, and entrepreneurs who contributed to its invention. Since anthropologists and social historians have a problematic relationship with 'machines' and 'technology', the arguments of Wallace are likely to be appreciated emphasizing that machines are the products of ideas and social relations rather than being functional apparatuses of production.

Archibugi, Howells and Michie (1999) discuss innovation policy by applying it to global economy. Losse (2003) works on the theories of scientific progress. Meanwhile, Murray (2002) recognizes the question of how science was commercialized and seen on her study of tissue engineering. In earlier studies (e.g. Nelson 1959; Arrow 1962, the importance of ‘new scientific knowledge’ as a driving force behind innovation, technological and economic progress is emphasized. This is the precursor of development of product and process innovations (Henderson et al 1998; Mansfield & Lee 1996; Stephan & Audretsch 2000). There has been several studies directed on the consequences of scientific and technological innovations particularly in business perspectives yet they are limited to the entrepreneurial and economic purposes. Furthermore, the negative effects of scientific and technological innovations are often overshadowed by its given beneficial contributions. There are limited studies on scientific innovations and its particular effects, for example, the environment (Rose 2002). There is no question on the abundance of research studies that tackles the consequences of scientific and technological innovations. Yet, this research study addresses the need to explicate further in the general scene and not only on specific aspects like that of business. The consequences of scientific and technological innovations extend beyond generations, thus, providing a contemporary evaluation of both positive and negative consequences and effects is of fundamental importance on this instance.

Objectives of the Study

This study is intended in providing qualitative body of information on the consequences of scientific and technological innovation. It aims to evaluate the overall role of scientific and technological innovation in all aspects of human life. Specifically, it aims to achieve the following objectives:

(1) To identify the key aspects of human life that are said to be affected by scientific and technological innovations.

(2) To point out the positive and negative consequences of scientific and technological innovations.

(3) To evaluate how do these consequences affect humanity.

The Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is projected on the intention to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations looking on the various aspects of human life. Theoretically, this study is planned for the benefit of social sciences practitioners, experts, as well as students in providing relevant and timely body of knowledge that they may use in further understanding and eventual performance of their own given duties. It also seeks to give information on issues ranging from the effects of scientific and technological innovations and how it affects human life. Thus, the knowledge to be elicited in this study will help in policy decision making and taking of related individuals. This study is a potent foundation of valuable information on how to manage such consequences and changes within different aspects of society and level of effects.

Scope of Study

The study is limited in evaluating the consequences of scientific and technological innovations by focusing on different aspects of human life (i.e. social, economical, cultural, etc.). All information included in this research study is deemed to be dependent on previously conducted empirical analyses as well as related literatures. This is qualitative and descriptive in approach since it uses critical review of selected research materials and collaborated with researcher’s personal observations and analysis.

Methodology

This study mainly focuses on the consequences of scientific and technological innovations as seen all throughout the history. The researcher will use the descriptive and qualitative research methods. Descriptive method is primarily concerned with providing explanations on the nature or conditions of the current situation in detail (Creswell 1994) where the emphasis is on describing rather than on judging. Meanwhile, qualitative method involves examining and reflecting on perceptions in order to gain knowledge of social and human activities (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 13). In this case, the descriptive-qualitative methods are used to compare and validate the findings, analyses and conclusions of previous researchers.

Through the process, a significant number of studies that are personally chosen by the researcher will be employed as the primary source of data. The information gathered from the literature helped provide a deeper insight into the factors involved in the research topic and its specific problems. This study will work from the descriptive and qualitative to the analytical, as descriptive and qualitative research alone is insufficient to formulate conclusions (Saunders et al 2003). The following are said to be the major steps that the researcher will undertake in completing the research inquiry:

(1) The first part of the paper will involve reading, evaluating and finding the research gaps in the literature in order to come up with a topic that would be helpful for the understanding of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations.

(2) The researcher limited the scope to focus on and refine the questions in this study and in the process revised and redrafted his queries to come up with a compact, focused and substantial subject.

(3) The researcher designed the research process.

(4) Finally, the researcher discussed and analyzed the literatures that led to formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

Data analysis will be done step by step. The research variables, on the other hand, will be first analyzed to provide descriptions of the factors that are relevant to the topic. The variables of the study will be researched qualitatively whereas the data, situations, or facts to be collected will be explained or correlated with other information relevant to the research subject. All information or research materials will be read carefully, and the text will be similarly sub-divided into meaningful units. Then, information are to be condensed to formulate answers to the research questions. Once the data are collected and collated, the final task will be the interpretation of the results. The study emphasizes that a great deal of caution is to be exercised in drawing conclusions from the data in order to maintain accuracy and reliability of results. In sum, this research study uses descriptive and qualitative research methods because the researcher attempts to construct theories that would explain the relationship of one variable to another.

Theoretical Framework

These are the key theories and concept to be used and will serve as the main elements that serve as guide toward the direction of the whole research activity.

Innovation and Diffusion of Innovation Theory

Innovation was defined in the previous part of this proposal as the process of introducing “something new” for constructive purposes. In discussing the time for a change associated with a technology, Grubler (1996) believes that it is necessary to consider invention and innovation as well as diffusion. Rogers (1962; 2003) signifies that innovation is spread among various areas of society and referred as the diffusion of innovation. Diffusion of innovation theory is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. Rogers (1962; 1976; 2003) mentioned four essential elements namely:

(1) Innovation – an idea, practices, or objects that is perceived as knew by an individual or other unit of adoption

(2) Communication channels – the means by which messages are transmitted

(3) Time – which involves time factors such as:

(a) Innovation-decision process

(b) Relative time with which an innovation is adopted by an individual or group

(c) Innovation's rate of adoption

(4) Social system - a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal

This theory, along with the concept of scientific and technological innovations, is used in leading the analysis of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations provided that it is applied in various aspects of human life and activity. Furthermore, the concept of scientific and technological innovations will be considered as the key words in searching of relevant literatures.

Reference

Archibugi, D, Michie, J, & Howells, J 1999, Innovation Policy in a Global Economy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Arrow, KJ 1962, Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for invention, The Economic Division, The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA. retrieved November 28, 2007 from, http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/2006/P1856.pdf

Cantwell, J (ed.) 1994, Transnational corporations and innovative activities, Routledge, London.

Cohen, WM & Levinthal, DA 1990, “Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, pp. 128-152.

Collis, J & Hussey, R 2003, Business Research, 2^nd Edition, Palgrave, New York.

Creswell, J 1994, Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Edquist, C 1997, Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, Pinter, London and Washington, DC.

Fagerberg, J 2004, “Innovation: A Guide to the Literature", in Fagerberg, J, Mowery, DC, & Nelson, RR (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Innovations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, pp. 1-26.

Grubler, A 1996, “Time for a Change: On the Patterns of Diffusion of Innovation,” Daedalus, vol. 125, no. 3, pp. 19+.

Henderson, R, Jaffe, A, & Trajtenberg, M 1998, “Universities as a source of commercial technology: a detailed analysis of university patenting, 1965-1988,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 80, pp. 119-127.

Losee, J 2003, Theories of Scientific Progress: An Introduction, Routledge, New York.

Mansfield, E & Lee, J-Y 1996, “The modern university: contributor to industrial innovation and recipient of industrial R&D support,” Research Policy, 25, pp. 1047-1058.

Murray, F 2002, "Innovation as co-evolution of scientific and technological networks: exploring tissue engineering," Research Policy, vol. 31, nos. 8-9 (December), pp. 1389-1403.

Nelson, RR 1959, “The simple economics of basic scientific research,” Journal of Political Economy, 67, pp. 297-306.

Rogers, EM 2003, Diffusion of Innovations, 5^th Edition, The Free Press, New York.

Rogers, EM 1976, "New Product Adoption and Diffusion," Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 2, March, pp. 290 -301.

Rogers, EM 1962, Diffusion of Innovations, The Free Press, New York.

Rose, CM 2002, “Scientific Innovation and Environmental Protection: Some Ethical Considerations,” Environmental Law, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 755+.

Saunders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A 2003, Research methods for business students, 3^rd Edition, Prentice Hall, London.

Stephan, P & Audretsch, DB 2000, The economics of science and innovation, Volume I and II, E. Elgar Publisher, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA.

Teece, D & Pisano, G 1994, “The dynamic capabilities of firms: An introduction,” Industrial and Corporate Change, 3, pp. 537-556.

Wallace, AFC 2004, The social context of innovation: bureaucrats, families and heroes in the early industrial revolution, 2nd Edition, Univ. Nebraska Press, London, Lincoln.

The Consequences of Scientific Innovation: on History’s Lenses

Introduction

The idea of innovation is not complete without the presence of “something new”. Innovation is often lexically defined as the act or process of introducing a new idea, method, or device. According to Edquist (1997), it is the introduction of new-fangled ideas, goods, services, and practices which are essentially intended to be constructive. Scientific innovation, in this case, is practically the introduction of latest advances in technology and its standard applications. This term is also synonymous to technological innovation. Historically, scientific innovations or technological inventions marked out majority of the important dates in the previous centuries particularly their advantageous effects to aspects of human life such as economy, commerce, society, culture, and the entire humanity. In business for instance, it provided technological capabilities to firms as the intrinsic ability to distribute available resources within the context of the firm provided the deliberate target of coming up with competitive products (Cantwell 1994; Cohen & Levinthal 1990; Teece & Pisano 1994). It is said that everyone is aware of the consequences of scientific innovations, may it be constructive or destructive in nature.

This research is focused on the historical perspective of the consequences of scientific innovation. It evaluates the effects of science and technology in the overall conditions of human life. Guided by the natural idea of man is born to be in quest for absolute knowledge and perfection, the research aims to provide assessment on how man developed or affected by scientific and technological innovations.

Statement of Problem

This research study focuses on the effects of scientific and technological innovation on people and history. It specifically seeks to provide solution to the following problems:

(1) What are the key aspects of human life that are said to be affected by scientific and technological innovations?

(2) What are the positive and negative consequences of scientific and technological innovations?

(3) How do these consequences affect humanity?

Literature Review

Much has been written about innovations as it refers to various area of application such as technology, business, social systems, economic development, and policy creation. Fagerberg and colleagues (2004) specifically Fagerberg worked on providing guide in studying the literature of innovations. Innovations is applied to various field of expertise that is why, it is needed to be classified and pointed. In this case, the literatures involved looks on various aspects of scientific and technological innovations and its given consequences.

Wallace (2004) explores scientific and technological innovation as a societal and institutional process and improves the historical account of machinery and the industrial revolution by blending it with the histories of the families, politicians, engineers, and entrepreneurs who contributed to its invention. Since anthropologists and social historians have a problematic relationship with 'machines' and 'technology', the arguments of Wallace are likely to be appreciated emphasizing that machines are the products of ideas and social relations rather than being functional apparatuses of production.

Archibugi, Howells and Michie (1999) discuss innovation policy by applying it to global economy. Losse (2003) works on the theories of scientific progress. Meanwhile, Murray (2002) recognizes the question of how science was commercialized and seen on her study of tissue engineering. In earlier studies (e.g. Nelson 1959; Arrow 1962, the importance of ‘new scientific knowledge’ as a driving force behind innovation, technological and economic progress is emphasized. This is the precursor of development of product and process innovations (Henderson et al 1998; Mansfield & Lee 1996; Stephan & Audretsch 2000). There has been several studies directed on the consequences of scientific and technological innovations particularly in business perspectives yet they are limited to the entrepreneurial and economic purposes. Furthermore, the negative effects of scientific and technological innovations are often overshadowed by its given beneficial contributions. There are limited studies on scientific innovations and its particular effects, for example, the environment (Rose 2002). There is no question on the abundance of research studies that tackles the consequences of scientific and technological innovations. Yet, this research study addresses the need to explicate further in the general scene and not only on specific aspects like that of business. The consequences of scientific and technological innovations extend beyond generations, thus, providing a contemporary evaluation of both positive and negative consequences and effects is of fundamental importance on this instance.

Objectives of the Study

This study is intended in providing qualitative body of information on the consequences of scientific and technological innovation. It aims to evaluate the overall role of scientific and technological innovation in all aspects of human life. Specifically, it aims to achieve the following objectives:

(1) To identify the key aspects of human life that are said to be affected by scientific and technological innovations.

(2) To point out the positive and negative consequences of scientific and technological innovations.

(3) To evaluate how do these consequences affect humanity.

The Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is projected on the intention to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations looking on the various aspects of human life. Theoretically, this study is planned for the benefit of social sciences practitioners, experts, as well as students in providing relevant and timely body of knowledge that they may use in further understanding and eventual performance of their own given duties. It also seeks to give information on issues ranging from the effects of scientific and technological innovations and how it affects human life. Thus, the knowledge to be elicited in this study will help in policy decision making and taking of related individuals. This study is a potent foundation of valuable information on how to manage such consequences and changes within different aspects of society and level of effects.

Scope of Study

The study is limited in evaluating the consequences of scientific and technological innovations by focusing on different aspects of human life (i.e. social, economical, cultural, etc.). All information included in this research study is deemed to be dependent on previously conducted empirical analyses as well as related literatures. This is qualitative and descriptive in approach since it uses critical review of selected research materials and collaborated with researcher’s personal observations and analysis.

Methodology

This study mainly focuses on the consequences of scientific and technological innovations as seen all throughout the history. The researcher will use the descriptive and qualitative research methods. Descriptive method is primarily concerned with providing explanations on the nature or conditions of the current situation in detail (Creswell 1994) where the emphasis is on describing rather than on judging. Meanwhile, qualitative method involves examining and reflecting on perceptions in order to gain knowledge of social and human activities (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 13). In this case, the descriptive-qualitative methods are used to compare and validate the findings, analyses and conclusions of previous researchers.

Through the process, a significant number of studies that are personally chosen by the researcher will be employed as the primary source of data. The information gathered from the literature helped provide a deeper insight into the factors involved in the research topic and its specific problems. This study will work from the descriptive and qualitative to the analytical, as descriptive and qualitative research alone is insufficient to formulate conclusions (Saunders et al 2003). The following are said to be the major steps that the researcher will undertake in completing the research inquiry:

(1) The first part of the paper will involve reading, evaluating and finding the research gaps in the literature in order to come up with a topic that would be helpful for the understanding of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations.

(2) The researcher limited the scope to focus on and refine the questions in this study and in the process revised and redrafted his queries to come up with a compact, focused and substantial subject.

(3) The researcher designed the research process.

(4) Finally, the researcher discussed and analyzed the literatures that led to formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

Data analysis will be done step by step. The research variables, on the other hand, will be first analyzed to provide descriptions of the factors that are relevant to the topic. The variables of the study will be researched qualitatively whereas the data, situations, or facts to be collected will be explained or correlated with other information relevant to the research subject. All information or research materials will be read carefully, and the text will be similarly sub-divided into meaningful units. Then, information are to be condensed to formulate answers to the research questions. Once the data are collected and collated, the final task will be the interpretation of the results. The study emphasizes that a great deal of caution is to be exercised in drawing conclusions from the data in order to maintain accuracy and reliability of results. In sum, this research study uses descriptive and qualitative research methods because the researcher attempts to construct theories that would explain the relationship of one variable to another.

Theoretical Framework

These are the key theories and concept to be used and will serve as the main elements that serve as guide toward the direction of the whole research activity.

Innovation and Diffusion of Innovation Theory

Innovation was defined in the previous part of this proposal as the process of introducing “something new” for constructive purposes. In discussing the time for a change associated with a technology, Grubler (1996) believes that it is necessary to consider invention and innovation as well as diffusion. Rogers (1962; 2003) signifies that innovation is spread among various areas of society and referred as the diffusion of innovation. Diffusion of innovation theory is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. Rogers (1962; 1976; 2003) mentioned four essential elements namely:

(1) Innovation – an idea, practices, or objects that is perceived as knew by an individual or other unit of adoption

(2) Communication channels – the means by which messages are transmitted

(3) Time – which involves time factors such as:

(a) Innovation-decision process

(b) Relative time with which an innovation is adopted by an individual or group

(c) Innovation's rate of adoption

(4) Social system - a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal

This theory, along with the concept of scientific and technological innovations, is used in leading the analysis of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations provided that it is applied in various aspects of human life and activity. Furthermore, the concept of scientific and technological innovations will be considered as the key words in searching of relevant literatures.

Reference

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