Introduction
The idea of innovation is not complete without the presence of “something new”. Innovation is often lexically defined as the act or process of introducing a new idea, method, or device. According to Edquist (1997), it is the introduction of new-fangled ideas, goods, services, and practices which are essentially intended to be constructive. Scientific innovation, in this case, is practically the introduction of latest advances in technology and its standard applications. This term is also synonymous to technological innovation. Historically, scientific innovations or technological inventions marked out majority of the important dates in the previous centuries particularly their advantageous effects to aspects of human life such as economy, commerce, society, culture, and the entire humanity. In business for instance, it provided technological capabilities to firms as the intrinsic ability to distribute available resources within the context of the firm provided the deliberate target of coming up with competitive products (Cantwell 1994; Cohen & Levinthal 1990; Teece & Pisano 1994). It is said that everyone is aware of the consequences of scientific innovations, may it be constructive or destructive in nature.
This research is focused on the historical perspective of the consequences of scientific innovation. It evaluates the effects of science and technology in the overall conditions of human life. Guided by the natural idea of man is born to be in quest for absolute knowledge and perfection, the research aims to provide assessment on how man developed or affected by scientific and technological innovations.
Statement of Problem
This research study focuses on the effects of scientific and technological innovation on people and history. It specifically seeks to provide solution to the following problems:
(1) What are the key aspects of human life that are said to be affected by scientific and technological innovations?
(2) What are the positive and negative consequences of scientific and technological innovations?
(3) How do these consequences affect humanity?
Literature Review
Much has been written about innovations as it refers to various area of application such as technology, business, social systems, economic development, and policy creation. Fagerberg and colleagues (2004) specifically Fagerberg worked on providing guide in studying the literature of innovations. Innovations is applied to various field of expertise that is why, it is needed to be classified and pointed. In this case, the literatures involved looks on various aspects of scientific and technological innovations and its given consequences.
Wallace (2004) explores scientific and technological innovation as a societal and institutional process and improves the historical account of machinery and the industrial revolution by blending it with the histories of the families, politicians, engineers, and entrepreneurs who contributed to its invention. Since anthropologists and social historians have a problematic relationship with 'machines' and 'technology', the arguments of Wallace are likely to be appreciated emphasizing that machines are the products of ideas and social relations rather than being functional apparatuses of production.
Archibugi, Howells and Michie (1999) discuss innovation policy by applying it to global economy. Losse (2003) works on the theories of scientific progress. Meanwhile, Murray (2002) recognizes the question of how science was commercialized and seen on her study of tissue engineering. In earlier studies (e.g. Nelson 1959; Arrow 1962, the importance of ‘new scientific knowledge’ as a driving force behind innovation, technological and economic progress is emphasized. This is the precursor of development of product and process innovations (Henderson et al 1998; Mansfield & Lee 1996; Stephan & Audretsch 2000). There has been several studies directed on the consequences of scientific and technological innovations particularly in business perspectives yet they are limited to the entrepreneurial and economic purposes. Furthermore, the negative effects of scientific and technological innovations are often overshadowed by its given beneficial contributions. There are limited studies on scientific innovations and its particular effects, for example, the environment (Rose 2002). There is no question on the abundance of research studies that tackles the consequences of scientific and technological innovations. Yet, this research study addresses the need to explicate further in the general scene and not only on specific aspects like that of business. The consequences of scientific and technological innovations extend beyond generations, thus, providing a contemporary evaluation of both positive and negative consequences and effects is of fundamental importance on this instance.
Objectives of the Study
This study is intended in providing qualitative body of information on the consequences of scientific and technological innovation. It aims to evaluate the overall role of scientific and technological innovation in all aspects of human life. Specifically, it aims to achieve the following objectives:
(1) To identify the key aspects of human life that are said to be affected by scientific and technological innovations.
(2) To point out the positive and negative consequences of scientific and technological innovations.
(3) To evaluate how do these consequences affect humanity.
The Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is projected on the intention to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations looking on the various aspects of human life. Theoretically, this study is planned for the benefit of social sciences practitioners, experts, as well as students in providing relevant and timely body of knowledge that they may use in further understanding and eventual performance of their own given duties. It also seeks to give information on issues ranging from the effects of scientific and technological innovations and how it affects human life. Thus, the knowledge to be elicited in this study will help in policy decision making and taking of related individuals. This study is a potent foundation of valuable information on how to manage such consequences and changes within different aspects of society and level of effects.
Scope of Study
The study is limited in evaluating the consequences of scientific and technological innovations by focusing on different aspects of human life (i.e. social, economical, cultural, etc.). All information included in this research study is deemed to be dependent on previously conducted empirical analyses as well as related literatures. This is qualitative and descriptive in approach since it uses critical review of selected research materials and collaborated with researcher’s personal observations and analysis.
Methodology
This study mainly focuses on the consequences of scientific and technological innovations as seen all throughout the history. The researcher will use the descriptive and qualitative research methods. Descriptive method is primarily concerned with providing explanations on the nature or conditions of the current situation in detail (Creswell 1994) where the emphasis is on describing rather than on judging. Meanwhile, qualitative method involves examining and reflecting on perceptions in order to gain knowledge of social and human activities (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 13). In this case, the descriptive-qualitative methods are used to compare and validate the findings, analyses and conclusions of previous researchers.
Through the process, a significant number of studies that are personally chosen by the researcher will be employed as the primary source of data. The information gathered from the literature helped provide a deeper insight into the factors involved in the research topic and its specific problems. This study will work from the descriptive and qualitative to the analytical, as descriptive and qualitative research alone is insufficient to formulate conclusions (Saunders et al 2003). The following are said to be the major steps that the researcher will undertake in completing the research inquiry:
(1) The first part of the paper will involve reading, evaluating and finding the research gaps in the literature in order to come up with a topic that would be helpful for the understanding of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations.
(2) The researcher limited the scope to focus on and refine the questions in this study and in the process revised and redrafted his queries to come up with a compact, focused and substantial subject.
(3) The researcher designed the research process.
(4) Finally, the researcher discussed and analyzed the literatures that led to formulation of conclusions and recommendations.
Data analysis will be done step by step. The research variables, on the other hand, will be first analyzed to provide descriptions of the factors that are relevant to the topic. The variables of the study will be researched qualitatively whereas the data, situations, or facts to be collected will be explained or correlated with other information relevant to the research subject. All information or research materials will be read carefully, and the text will be similarly sub-divided into meaningful units. Then, information are to be condensed to formulate answers to the research questions. Once the data are collected and collated, the final task will be the interpretation of the results. The study emphasizes that a great deal of caution is to be exercised in drawing conclusions from the data in order to maintain accuracy and reliability of results. In sum, this research study uses descriptive and qualitative research methods because the researcher attempts to construct theories that would explain the relationship of one variable to another.
Theoretical Framework
These are the key theories and concept to be used and will serve as the main elements that serve as guide toward the direction of the whole research activity.
Innovation and Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Innovation was defined in the previous part of this proposal as the process of introducing “something new” for constructive purposes. In discussing the time for a change associated with a technology, Grubler (1996) believes that it is necessary to consider invention and innovation as well as diffusion. Rogers (1962; 2003) signifies that innovation is spread among various areas of society and referred as the diffusion of innovation. Diffusion of innovation theory is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. Rogers (1962; 1976; 2003) mentioned four essential elements namely:
(1) Innovation – an idea, practices, or objects that is perceived as knew by an individual or other unit of adoption
(2) Communication channels – the means by which messages are transmitted
(3) Time – which involves time factors such as:
(a) Innovation-decision process
(b) Relative time with which an innovation is adopted by an individual or group
(c) Innovation's rate of adoption
(4) Social system - a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal
This theory, along with the concept of scientific and technological innovations, is used in leading the analysis of the consequences of scientific and technological innovations provided that it is applied in various aspects of human life and activity. Furthermore, the concept of scientific and technological innovations will be considered as the key words in searching of relevant literatures.
Reference
Archibugi, D, Michie, J, & Howells, J 1999, Innovation Policy in a Global Economy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Arrow, KJ 1962, Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for invention, The Economic Division, The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA. retrieved November 28, 2007 from, http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/2006/P1856.pdf
Cantwell, J (ed.) 1994, Transnational corporations and innovative activities, Routledge, London.
Cohen, WM & Levinthal, DA 1990, “Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, pp. 128-152.
Collis, J & Hussey, R 2003, Business Research, 2nd Edition, Palgrave, New York.
Creswell, J 1994, Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Edquist, C 1997, Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, Pinter, London and Washington, DC.
Fagerberg, J 2004, “Innovation: A Guide to the Literature", in Fagerberg, J, Mowery, DC, & Nelson, RR (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Innovations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, pp. 1-26.
Grubler, A 1996, “Time for a Change: On the Patterns of Diffusion of Innovation,” Daedalus, vol. 125, no. 3, pp. 19+.
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Losee, J 2003, Theories of Scientific Progress: An Introduction, Routledge, New York.
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Murray, F 2002, "Innovation as co-evolution of scientific and technological networks: exploring tissue engineering," Research Policy, vol. 31, nos. 8-9 (December), pp. 1389-1403.
Nelson, RR 1959, “The simple economics of basic scientific research,” Journal of Political Economy, 67, pp. 297-306.
Rogers, EM 2003, Diffusion of Innovations, 5th Edition, The Free Press, New York.
Rogers, EM 1976, "New Product Adoption and Diffusion," Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 2, March, pp. 290 -301.
Rogers, EM 1962, Diffusion of Innovations, The Free Press, New York.
Rose, CM 2002, “Scientific Innovation and Environmental Protection: Some Ethical Considerations,” Environmental Law, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 755+.
Saunders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A 2003, Research methods for business students, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, London.
Stephan, P & Audretsch, DB 2000, The economics of science and innovation, Volume I and II, E. Elgar Publisher, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA.
Teece, D & Pisano, G 1994, “The dynamic capabilities of firms: An introduction,” Industrial and Corporate Change, 3, pp. 537-556.
Wallace, AFC 2004, The social context of innovation: bureaucrats, families and heroes in the early industrial revolution, 2nd Edition, Univ. Nebraska Press, London, Lincoln.
