Japanese Culture and Leadership

Honda Motor Company, Limited or popularly labeled as Honda was established in 1948 by Soichiro Honda and tagged as the world’s largest motorcycle manufacturers and one of the leading automakers. Their present domain reports that Honda comprises of more than 400 subsidiaries and affiliates that make their global network headed by Takeo Fukui as CEO and significantly recorded a total of US$94.24 billion revenue in 2007 while employing more than 160,000 people. With visions of value creation, ‘glocalization’, and commitment for the future, they offer a wide variety range of products ranging from small general-purpose engines and scooters to specialty sports cars. Up to the present, their consistency in providing products of highest quality that creates new values and reasonable price makes them outstanding in terms of worldwide customer satisfaction. These two attributes also serve as their competitive edge – high quality and reasonable in price.

Japan is considered as among the highly industrialised countries in the world, recognised as second largest business affiliate of US, leader in innovations, and uses participative leadership. Although the Japanese are considered to be quite diverse as compared to Americans in terms of cultural values, Japanese leaders appear to use an array of leadership styles (both task-oriented/autocratic and relationship-oriented/participative) in a manner similar to American leaders (Gibson and Marcoulides 1995). In most research literatures, the participative nature of leadership style is clearly employed by Japanese leaders and managers (Fukushige and Spicer 2007; Chan 2004; Jenkins 2004; Kustin and Jones 1995; Taka and Foglia 1994). The case of American leadership styles is also evident on the case of Japanese. Japanese leaders are also directed to achievement of organisational goals but not to the expense of the members of the staff (Sarros and Santora 2001). Unlike Americans, Japanese criticise themselves while Americans keep away from criticism (Robie et al. 2005; Pasa 2000). However, there are identified cultural similarities and differences in terms of other factors or aspects of leadership.

In reference to Japanese culture, a degree of masculinity is high while medium on collectivism (Fukushige and Spicer 2007). This is predominantly associated on their paternalistic tradition and history. Referring to Hofstede’s research, Japan is moderate on power distance and individualism while high on masculinity and uncertainty avoidance (cited in Fukushige and Spicer 2007). The unique cultural values of Japanese include consensus decision making, loyalty to firms, and lifetime employment. However, it is argued that such values may have changed considering the various global occurrences affecting the world and different people. Amidst the extremely structured and ordered organisational design, Japanese leaders and managers give employees the freedom to achieve goals, as reflected in the phrase omasake or “I trust you, you can do it” (Sarros and Santora 2001; Kustin and Jones 1995). Japanese also establish an atmosphere of respect and obedience from their subordinates (Sarros and Santora 2001) but they do not impose more rules and laws that affect overall working relationships and conditions. Their paternalistic history emerges on the manner they manage their subordinates (Dorfman et al. 1997). While most Japanese organisations – like Americans, are highly and rigidly structured in terms of hierarchy, they have an outstanding concern for the personal lives of their subordinates (Fukushige and Spicer 2007; Sarros and Santora 2001; Wu et al. 2000). Human relationships extend beyond organisational standards as Japanese leaders tend to be caring and friendly (Sarros and Santora 2001). There is increased emphasis on harmony with others where symbol of respect, guidance and consultation is prioritised. Relationships are mainly supported by high level of respect, trust and commitment as rooted on Confucian ideology, which contains a valuable degree of respect and obedience to figures of authority. Trust plays a vital role, for example, most Japanese leaders leave their subordinates set of instructions and it is up to them to carry out the works. In terms of decision making, they similarly acknowledge the consensus of everyone particularly during extensive consultation. This is also seen on cases of working in a specific project where teamwork is high and keeping satisfaction is vital (Wu et al. 2000). Mainly most leadership studies (e.g. Chan 2004; Wu et al. 2000; Bass 1990) construe Japanese leaders as advocates of equality and group harmony. Charisma is shown by leaders when they set up overall organisational theme, develop strategy, and employ high-level outside relations (Bass 1990). Taking risk is something that is very improbable because a Japanese leader is flexible, fair, empathetic listener, active, and accountable.

Accordingly, the leadership style used by Japanese leaders is effective especially in achieving superior levels of employee motivation, commitment, delegation in terms of decision making and intrinsic job satisfaction (Keys and Miller 1982 cited in Wu 2006). Like American leaders, the encouragement for collective decision making and extensive consultation among Japanese leaders towards the members of staff is highly regarded (Yukl 2002; Kustin and Jones 1995). In communication, Japanese leaders have been able to act as efficient communicators in their respective companies because they are natural lovers of harmony at workplace. Group harmony is critically acknowledged all the time (Wu et al. 2000; Bass 1990). They are bounded by human relationship as they needed to know their subordinates’ lives so as to provide understanding on the manner in which they behave and from here, leadership techniques are developed. Aside from the given traits in relation to leadership styles, Japanese are identified not to have more analytical tools to analyse workplace situations because they are much into many fields of expertise rather than specialising into single area.

On the case of Japan’s culture, Honda is the world’s largest motorcycle manufacturers and one of the leading automakers. Honda maintains their high quality through sticking to their philosophy as determined by founder Soichiro Honda. Honda’s philosophy revolves around four major specifications namely: (1) high expectations set for itself and its suppliers, (2) willingness to apply whatever resources necessary to get the job done, (3) commitment to cooperation and collaboration, and (4) unrelenting attention to detail. The leadership style of Honda reflects the performance of the company especially on the execution of its marketing and management strategies. Honda is different from other automobile companies because of the aforementioned philosophy that guides them in every decision and action at every level in the Company. With those, the success and market reputation of the brand is unquestionable.

The willingness to apply available resources to get the job done provide cost efficiency to the Company. Today, the increasing amount of raw materials is one of the most unsettled problems of business organizations. As prices increase, the suppliers also go with the flow. The supply and demand chain affects the overall conditions of the business. As Honda cling to their available materials, financial stability is guaranteed. In terms of human resources, Honda management wants multi-talented individuals that are able to work in various positions and perform activities in high expectations. Training and development opportunities are thriving. Also, the value of open communication, positive attitude and teamwork is proliferated. Honda perfected the art of cost management. The sharing of resources both at raw materials and semi-finished products leads to additional cost reduction for the Company, at least to its consolidated financial costs. With this, benefits and incentives are far greater than the actual and potential (risks) costs of strategic alliances and FDI (Vernon 1996).

Honda’s commitment to cooperation and collaboration allows that whole company to explore wider horizons that will lead them to productive economic ventures and human knowledge acquisition. Their given importance to affiliation and networking contributes to the continuous expansion of their branches and dealers. The expansion activities of Honda can be considered as optimal strategies with greatest amount of risks (Shrivastava 1995). Optimal because economies of scale, scope and cost-efficiencies are eminent although huge investments post risks. Further, the establishment of subsidiaries, regional offices, and joint-plants made it possible for exports and licensing grants to be possible due to location advantages (Mauri and Phatak 2001).

The unrelenting attention to detail of the Company still proves to be effective. For instance, in addressing the global call of environmental friendliness in all automobile products, Honda worked hard in enhancing the environmental and safety aspect of their products. With this, it has direct impact on brand recognition and loyalty (Kotler 2003). In relation to their products, Honda implements continuous research and development, studies emerging trends and technology innovations, and at the same time plans their future products and operations.

Honda is different from other automobile companies because of the aforementioned philosophy that guides them in every decision and action at every level in the Company. With those, the success and market reputation of the brand is unquestionable. Additionally, the capability of the Company in addressing issues that concern the environment and customer satisfaction is always prompt and remarkable. The advantages in maintaining an international viewpoint are wider market scope for sales and production operations, brand awareness and development, international recognition, and ability to compete globally. The disadvantages, on the other hand, are stiff competition, diversity of location and managerial functions, and unstable economy of a region. But then again, with the proper implementation of the managerial functions, marketing strategies, and the dedication of supplying products of the highest efficiency yet reasonable prices and guaranteed worldwide customer satisfaction will make the Company more successful.
Meanwhile, cost reduction is not a problem to the Company. Since it is indicative in their basic philosophy, Honda has all the necessary means to have high quality products yet cost efficient and effective. In some cases cost reduction is strictly implemented when there are economic and financial difficulties, production barriers, and onset changes in the trends of the industry.
In building and sustaining supplier relationships, Honda and its management can easily refer to the existing culture of supply chain management being utilized by their Company throughout the long years of operations. Integration and acquisition are potential methods to retain good supplier relationship. Also, increase awareness to the conditions of affiliates and subsidiaries will somewhat determine the potency of the Company. With this, training and retention are deemed crucial to international success of subsidiaries (Hitt, Hoskisson and Ireland 2003).

Quality improvement in Honda is crucial. In aggregate, Honda is there not only to produce quality products but also affordable, safe and environment-sensitive ones. This makes the brand competitive in both private, industrial and public utilities’ needs. Due to this, the firm had always aspire to be approached by the society as a “must” brand to exist (Honda 2008). Improvement is seen on the implementing research-based activities of Honda. Innovation and research findings need not be strictly established in every subsidiary office (Anders 2002). Honda’s action to intensify R&D may not just suggest that it would try to personalize models in each country instead such strategy could be suitably suspected to maximize sharing of resources. The findings of one country can be applied to global operations since safety and environment issues are of general concerns. In such case, the firm had settled to invest heavily on R&D not to disqualify this claim but to prove its financial capability supported by joint-ventures.
Technology improvement is linked with the environmental-friendliness of the brand. Innovations are also designed in the manufacturing, distribution and research mobile. The improved integration combines the expertise of local associates into global spectrum that will hasten improvement of technology. For instance, the launch of “Green Factory” not only makes Honda “green” in its products but on manufacturing as well. A global strategy suited to create value-added components and brand loyalty to customers. In addition to this, safety is also an ingredient in its produced with the commitment of “Safety for Everyone” scheme (Honda 2008). Some of the product innovations that ultimately held local market are the introduction of flagship luxury sedan, supplying fuel cell vehicle to private companies for sub-freezing temperatures and innovation of fuel economy/ low emission motorcycle engines below government regulation levels. Production technologies become mobile wherein the developed technology within the regional and local research facilities was transferred to a specific plant that has high requirement for such technology.


References
--- www.honda.com

Anders, G (2002) ‘How Intel Puts Innovation inside’, Fast Company, March, 122-124

Bass, BM (1990) Bass and Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership, Free Press, New

Chan, C (2004 November-December) ‘Is there such a thing as an Asian, as opposed to a Western, style of leadership?’ Leadership in Action, 24: 5, 12-13

Dorfman, PW, Howell, JP, Hibino, S, Lee, JK, Tate, U and Bautista, A (1997) ‘Leadership in Western and Asian countries: Commonalities and differences in effective leadership processes across cultures’, The Leadership Quarterly, 8: 3 (Autumn), 233-274

Fukushige, A and Spicer, DP (2007) ‘Leadership preferences in Japan: an exploratory study’, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 28: 6, 508-530

Gibson, CB and Marcoulides, GA (1995) ‘The Invariance of Leadership Styles across Four Countries’, Journal of Managerial Issues, 7, 45-50

Hitt, M, Hoskisson, R and Ireland, RD (2003) Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization, 5th Edition, South Western; Thomson Learning, Singapore

Jenkins, M (2004 November-December) ‘A Question of Leadership’, Leadership in Action, 24: 5, 12

Kotler, P (2003) Marketing Management.11th Edition, Prentice Hall, Mahwah, NJ

Kustin, R and Jones, R (1995) ‘The influence of corporate headquarters on leadership styles in Japanese and US subsidiary companies’, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 16: 5, 11-15

Mauri, A and Phatak, A (2001) ‘Global Integration as Inter-Area Product Flows: The Internalization of Ownership and Location Factors Influencing Product Flows across MNC units’, Management International Review, 41; 3, 233-249

Pasa, SF (2000) ‘Leadership influence in a high power distance and collectivist culture’, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 21: 8, 414-426

Robie, C, Brown, DJ, and Bly, PR (2005) ‘The big five in the USA and Japan’, Journal of Management Development, 24: 8, 720-737

Sarros, JC and Santora, JC (2001) ‘Leaders and values: a cross-cultural study’, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22: 5, 243-248

Shrivastava, P (1995) ‘Ecocentric Management for a Risk Society’, Academy for Management Review, 20, 119

Taka, I and Foglia, WD (1994 February) ‘Ethical aspects of “Japanese leadership style”’, Journal of Business Ethics, 13: 2, 135-148

Vernon, R (1996) ‘International investment and international trade in the product cycle’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 80,190-207

Wu, M (2006) ‘Compare Participative Leadership Theories in Three Cultures’, China Media Research, 2: 3, 20-30

Wu, W, Lin, C, and Lee, L (2000) ‘Personal characters, decision-making patterns and leadership styles of female managers: a comparative study of American, Taiwanese, and Japanese female managers’, Cross Cultural Management, 7: 4, 18-32

Yukl, G (2002) Leadership in Organizations (5th edn), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J

Alabang Boys

Sa dalawang magkahiwalay na operasyon noong Setyembre, inaresto ng mga operatiba ng Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency ang tatlong suspek na pinaghihinalaang drug pushers. Binansagang "Alabang Boys," sina Richard Brodett, Joseph Tecson at Jorge Joseph ay pawang galing sa mayayaman at sinasabing maiimpluwensiyang pamilya. Noong Disyembre, isang resolusyon ang pinirmahan ng Chief State Prosecutor ng Department of Justice na nagbabasura sa kaso laban sa "Alabang Boys" dahil umano sa kawalan ng sapat na ebidensiya. Isang "release order" ang ginawa na dapat sana'y magpapalaya sa tatlo. Inangalan ng PDEA ang desisyon. Malakas daw ang kaso nila at hindi nila pinakawalan ang mga akusado. Nasa sentro ngayon ng imbestigasyon ng Kamara ang eskandalo. Mayroon nga bang pag-impluwensya sa kapangyarihan sa kasong kinasasangkutan ng alabang Boys?

Alabang Boys

Sa dalawang magkahiwalay na operasyon noong Setyembre, inaresto ng mga operatiba ng Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency ang tatlong suspek na pinaghihinalaang drug pushers. Binansagang "Alabang Boys," sina Richard Brodett, Joseph Tecson at Jorge Joseph ay pawang galing sa mayayaman at sinasabing maiimpluwensiyang pamilya. Noong Disyembre, isang resolusyon ang pinirmahan ng Chief State Prosecutor ng Department of Justice na nagbabasura sa kaso laban sa "Alabang Boys" dahil umano sa kawalan ng sapat na ebidensiya. Isang "release order" ang ginawa na dapat sana'y magpapalaya sa tatlo. Inangalan ng PDEA ang desisyon. Malakas daw ang kaso nila at hindi nila pinakawalan ang mga akusado. Nasa sentro ngayon ng imbestigasyon ng Kamara ang eskandalo. Mayroon nga bang pag-impluwensya sa kapangyarihan sa kasong kinasasangkutan ng alabang Boys?

Public Relations and Practice

It is generally accepted, or perhaps commonly considered, that public relations or PR is a primary process applied in building image and reputation in organizations and institutions regardless that such as profit- and non-profit in nature. Public relations and its practice is “an integral part of the functioning of modern society” (Singh and Smyth 2000, 388). To Lamb and Mckee (2005), PR is an excellent avenue for the processes of monitoring, interaction, and response with other key groups or stakeholders within the organizational or any given setting. It is simply communication is action. There are many definitions that refer to PR but Lamn and Mckee’s simply says it all: “…the communication and action on the part of an organization that supports the development and maintenance of mutually beneficial relationships between the organization and the groups with which it is interdependent” (1). Looking on the said definition, relationships particularly those that are mutual and beneficial are given more significance. It is understood that most PR practitioners including scholars affirm that relationships are the key indicator of successful public relations practice (Grunig and Huang 2000, 24). Relationships are characterized by support from all parties involved. Meanwhile, the task of PR manager and other experts is to publicize all those attributes to the public and the target audience or organization. The success of a PR campaign is argued to be dependent not only on the applicability of the campaign, but also the understanding of situation, identifying objectives, pointing out key issues to be addressed, target audience and stakeholders, designing methods (i.e. communication strategies), allocating budget, and conducting evaluation. Furthermore, the role of key implementers of a PR campaign is important. Managerial expertise and client’s involvement is perceived to be essential and fundamental.

PART A.
1. James Grunig’s Four Models of Public Relations Practice: evidences in the campaign
• The Australian Road Rules
Accordingly, the success of the new Australian Road Rules is a product of an excellent PR campaign through extensive and maximum use of information and communication strategies, strict implementation of key authorities, active participation and support from stakeholders, and continuous evaluation. In return, the Australian Road Rules became a model of road safety policy not only in Australia but in some parts of the globe. It is a safer, more consistent approach to traffic regulation, promote courtesy, and are easier to understand and obey for all road users. Looking on James Grunig’s four models of PR practice in general perspectives, it can be considered that each model is used at a certain position and degree. But in specific perspective, it mainly used the two-way symmetrical communication.
Press agentry – this model relates to a communication program that attempt to encourage publicity, especially in the mass media. To some point, the campaign applied this model when they use communication materials (e.g. media backgrounders) to establish awareness among people through faster vehicles of communication. There is a deliberate and immediate attempt to establish awareness and eventually gain attention about the intended output. Thus, press agentry seems to be a primary action. There is also the intention to persuade and influence the target audience to act based on organizational power.
Public information model – this model is based on the application of “journalists in residence” to circulate relevant and relatively objective information through the mass media and controlled media such as newsletters, brochures, and direct mail. The campaign used letterbox booklets, brochures, flyers, media releases, advertorials, and progress reports among others. The journalistic attribute, which is communicating a message through written outputs, is used. Information dissemination through print media techniques is among the key determinants of this model.
It is argued that these two PR models are one-way in nature. This means that they describe communication initiatives or programs without research and strategic planning. On the case of the Australian Road Rules, this is not seen as the campaign is based on extensive research and strategic planning as well as implementation. The two previously mentioned models are also asymmetrical in nature as they mainly attempt to create a reputable and good image of an organization based on propaganda (press agentry) or by disseminating only favorable information (public information). This is not seen, however, on the case of the Australian Road Rules.
Two-way asymmetric communication – this is considered as more sophisticated approach as compared to the previous models. Pratt and Lennon (2001) consider that an increase in sophistication of the PR process calls for deducing action plans as alternatives for program objectives. This is supported by the presence and application of research in order to develop messages that are directed to the target audiences and with deliberate goal of persuasion and to behave based on organizational power. Indeed, the campaign is based on research as it looked on strategic and educational issues before creating strategies. Most researchers consider two-way asymmetrical communication – like press agentry and public information – is less effective (Grunig et al. 1992, 18).
Two-way symmetric communication – this is the model in which research is also done but with special attention given on management of conflict and improving the knowledge with strategic publics. In the study of Huang (2004), she used Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) consideration that “communication is symmetrical when the public has some effect on it; that is, when the communicator is willing to initiate changes from his or her side” (334). The earlier studies of Grunig (1989) and Grunig and Grunig (1992) emphasize the normative ideal and result in effective PR using the two-way symmetrical communication model for most situations. The case of the Australian Road Rules clearly shows the nature of the two-way symmetrical communication because it centrally catered to issues and came up with strategies that will directly (and even indirectly) require public participation and support. There is the presence of looking on issues and creation of strategies to manage the identified strategic and educational issues. The involvement of the public is very crucial on this model. Because of this model, the campaign succeeded in achieving its objectives and delivered on the target date and specified budget allocation.

• The National Youth Week 2000
The National Youth Week (NYW) 2000 is a national virtual event in Australia that succeeded due to effective PR campaign using a multimedia program to promote the various activities for the Week and similarly provide national attention on these activities. Looking on James Grunig’s four models of PR practice, it can also be considered that the said campaign used each model at a certain point of the campaign and limited extent. It employed the models of press agentry, public information, and two-way asymmetrical communication in its general and initial stages yet specifically ended up using the two-way symmetrical communication. Like the case of the Australian Road Rules, it is research-based (i.e. literature review of topics about youth) and mutual understanding and participation of the organization and target audience or even the general public are obtained. The campaign used web site and effective management. The web site distinctively featured celebrities, a national music competition, a virtual showbag and virtual concert. Among the most remarkable aspects of the campaign are the application of multimedia, integration of youth marketing, presence of sponsorship, and government support. While the Australian Road Rules cater to road safety policy involving a variety of stakeholders, the NYW specifically promotes the ideals of youth and directly appeals to the younger population while similarly gaining support from various aspects of the national population. As Smith (2004) emphasized, a specific PR campaign is supposed to be an intensive effort that is directed to achieving research-based goals in the course of applying relevant and appropriate communication strategies and measuring beneficial outcomes. There is no major differences in the PR practice used in both cases, thus, James Grunig’s models are seen applicable especial the two-way symmetrical communication model.

2. The importance of the consultant’s role: in contrast to in-house practitioner
Public relations is highly valued and recognized as effective means to interact with various internal and external stakeholders at different levels. However, the effectiveness of any PR campaign is based on the ability of the people behind it. The role of the consultant is tantamount to a manager who does planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. Since PR practice is deliberate, the role of the consultant is important because he/she serve as the main framework and the key person behind the materialization of the framework itself. Everything, including processes like decision making and taking or strategy formulation and implementation among others come from his/her power. It is basically the function of the consultant that defines or justifies his/her importance in the success or failure of a specific PR practice or campaign. The Australian In both cases, it is more acceptable if a consultant facilitates each PR campaign rather than an in-house practitioner. This is rooted on the idea of objectivity and credibility. This kind of work calls for the ethical role of the practitioner (Harris 2005). The element of continuity is also considered. Howell and Miller (2006) argue that the unavailability of key public relations personnel and consultants to work on PR campaigns and other initiatives can lead in a misrepresented legal circumstances and communication issues or crises and risking the organization and its management as well as stakeholders and other parties involved.

PART B.
The Role of the Public Relations Practitioner in the Non-profit Sector
Basically, the main idea of public relations is to credibly render a good reputation of a specific organization. It is a perceived and universal idea that a good reputation is one of the major elements for organizational success. As Winkleman (1999) declares, it should be maintained because once it is tarnished; it could be very difficult to regain. If the reputation is lost, regaining it is among the PR man’s job and ultimate challenge. Nakra (2000) stated: “A company's reputation affects its ability to sell products and services, to attract investors, to hire talented staff, and to exert influence in government circles” (p.35). This is applicable to all organizations – profit or non-profit in terms of management. The PR practitioners’ job is to publicize all good attributes and traits to the public and to the target people or organization. Many companies that are profit-oriented have gained enough positive reputation because of effective PR. For instance, ‘Johnson and Johnson’ is respected for its moral and ethical values, established all over the world; while GE is praised for high employee retention (Nakra 2000). Existing facts about the companies do not just go out to the public with just mere benchmarking results. Rather, they are carefully publicized by public relation tactics i.e. disseminated to broadsheets, tabloids, televised press conferences, etc. That is why PR is closely related with corporate branding and governance. The management does the cultivation of the corporate brand, and then PR distributes the improvement and handles issues that are harmful to the company’s image and reputation. But how does PR practice in non-profit organizations differ?
Significant differences in public relations practices have been found in various research studies. In earlier literature, McElreath (1993 cited in McElreath and Blamphin 1994, 81) explored profit organizations and discovered that they engage in more stockholder relations. These organizations, with the application of nonroutine technologies, interacts more in a face-to-face basis. Also, they are highly regulated and spend more time evaluating their public relations. In profit-oriented sectors, corporate brand communication is evident. This is also seen in non-profit sectors but in lesser extent. Corporate brand communication is the building up a reputation of a profit-oriented organization with special attention given on corporate brand. This refers to the overall characteristic of the organization, which provides: marks denoting ownership; image-building devices; symbols associated with key values; means by which to construct individual identities; and a conduit by which pleasurable experiences may be consumed (Balmer and Gray 2003). Corporate brand communicate the brand’s values, afford a means of differentiation from their competitors, and enhance the esteem and loyalty in which the organization is held by its stakeholder groups (Balmer 2001). Thus, marketing and sales strategies are dependent to the strengths or weaknesses of the corporate brands. If the positive values of the corporate brand are successfully publicized by the PR man, then marketing strategies and sales strategies can use that good publicity to the corporation’s advantage. In contrast to non-profit sector, communication is based not on brand but on the nature, objectives, activities, and other advantages of a given organization. Non-profit organizations are also recognized to significantly more likely to make the most of an advertising and/or PR agency on a project-by-project basis. The matter in terms of the relationship of marketing and reputation is the key distinction. Lastly, the consideration of budget is among the main attributes that obviously characterizes a non-profit organization in terms of PR functions as compared to organizations that work towards profit accumulation.

The Differences of In-house PR Practitioner and PR Consultant
A PR practitioner can work in a PR consultancy or an In-house PR department. The differences of the two opportunities are:
• A PR consultant works in an agency that provides guidance and specialist services to clients particularly of big businesses and corporations
• An In-house PR practitioner works exclusively for an organization.
In various literatures like Dyer and colleagues (2002), In-house PR professionals can be clients of PR consultancies who are governed by PR Consultants with full service or specialist offer. In-house PR practitioners are undertakes PR programmes for their own specific organizations. While PR Consultants holds a large team, In-house PR experts have smaller teams to oversee other PR processes like marketing (e.g. advertising and direct marketing).
Furthermore, In-house PR practitioners work in their specified department and have specific tasks. The department in which they work is not subject to PR industry regulations. However, it is possible that In-house PR practitioners within the organization acquired membership or affiliation to any professional and regulatory body. Membership or affiliations ensures individual practitioners to adhere to professional codes of conduct in handling their roles and responsibilities. In certain industries, In-house PR departments and practitioners are governed by other standards or codes related and based on their own specific industry environment.
In general, the nature of work of the In-house PR practitioner and PR Consultant is similar provided that it falls on the idea of public relations – maintaining effective communication between the organization or client and the public. Smith (2004) noted that PR professionals in the workplace are exposed to multitasking as they function particularly in both the technician and the managerial roles. To Smith (2004, 1),
Public relations professionals used to be called upon mainly for tasks such as writing news releases, making speeches, producing videos, publishing newsletters, organizing displays and so on. Now the profession demands competency in conducting research, making decisions and solving problems.

It is supposed that whether or not a PR practitioner works in a consultancy or a exclusive department of an organization, it is still important that such individual is armed with the needed personal and professional knowledge, skill, and abilities in order to perform the challenging role of the public relations practice.


References

Balmer, JMT (2001) ‘Corporate identity, corporate branding and corporate marketing: seeing through the fog’, European Journal of Marketing, 35: 3/4, 248-91

Balmer, JAT and Gray, ER (2003) ‘Corporate brands: what are they? What of them?’ European Journal of Marketing, 37: 7/8, 972-997

Dyer, S, Buell, T, Harrison, M, & Weber, S (2002) ‘Managing Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations’, Public Relations Quarterly, 47: 4, 13-17

Grunig, JE (1989) ‘A Situational Theory of Environmental Issues, Publics, and Activists’, in Huang, Y (2004) 'Is Symmetrical Communication Ethical and Effective?', Journal of Business Ethics, 53: 333-352

Grunig, JE & Grunig, LA (1992) ‘Models of Public Relations and Communication’, in Huang, Y (2004) 'Is Symmetrical Communication Ethical and Effective?', Journal of Business Ethics, 53: 333-352

Grunig, JE & Huang, Y (2000) 'From Organizational Effectiveness to Relationship indicators: Antecedents of Relationships, Public Relations Strategies, and Relationship Outcomes', in Bruining, S. D. & Ledingham, J. A. (eds), Public Relations as Relationship Management: A Relational Approach to the Study and Practice of Public Relations, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 23-53

Grunig, JE & Hunt, T (1984) Managing Public Relations, Holt, Rinehart, Winston, New York

Harris, R (2005) ‘When giving means taking: Public relations, sponsorship, and morally marginal donors’, Public Relations Review, 31: 4, 486-491

Howell, G & Miller, R (2006) ‘Spinning out the asbestos agenda: How big business uses public relations in Australia’, Public Relations Review, 32: 3, Pages 261-266

Lamb, LF & Mckee, KB (2005) Applied Public Relations: Cases in Stakeholder Management, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ

McElreath, MP & Blamphin, JM (1994) ‘Partial Answers to Priority Research Questions -- and Gaps -- Found in the Public Relations Society of America's Body of Knowledge’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 6: 2, 81-100

Nakra, P (2000) ‘Corporate Reputation Management: "CRM" with a Strategic Twist?’ Public Relations Quarterly, 45: 2, 35

Pratt, CB & Lennon, G (2001) ‘What’s wrong with outcomes evaluation’, Public Relations Quarterly, 46: 4, 40

Singh, R & Smyth, R (2000) ‘Australian public relations: status at the turn of the 21st century’, Public Relations Review, 26: 4, 387-401

Smith, R (2004) Strategic planning for public relations, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ

Winkleman, M (1999) ‘The Fickle Finger of Reputation’, Chief Executive, April issue, 79

Public Relations and Practice

It is generally accepted, or perhaps commonly considered, that public relations or PR is a primary process applied in building image and reputation in organizations and institutions regardless that such as profit- and non-profit in nature. Public relations and its practice is “an integral part of the functioning of modern society” (Singh and Smyth 2000, 388). To Lamb and Mckee (2005), PR is an excellent avenue for the processes of monitoring, interaction, and response with other key groups or stakeholders within the organizational or any given setting. It is simply communication is action. There are many definitions that refer to PR but Lamn and Mckee’s simply says it all: “…the communication and action on the part of an organization that supports the development and maintenance of mutually beneficial relationships between the organization and the groups with which it is interdependent” (1). Looking on the said definition, relationships particularly those that are mutual and beneficial are given more significance. It is understood that most PR practitioners including scholars affirm that relationships are the key indicator of successful public relations practice (Grunig and Huang 2000, 24). Relationships are characterized by support from all parties involved. Meanwhile, the task of PR manager and other experts is to publicize all those attributes to the public and the target audience or organization. The success of a PR campaign is argued to be dependent not only on the applicability of the campaign, but also the understanding of situation, identifying objectives, pointing out key issues to be addressed, target audience and stakeholders, designing methods (i.e. communication strategies), allocating budget, and conducting evaluation. Furthermore, the role of key implementers of a PR campaign is important. Managerial expertise and client’s involvement is perceived to be essential and fundamental.

PART A.
1. James Grunig’s Four Models of Public Relations Practice: evidences in the campaign
• The Australian Road Rules
Accordingly, the success of the new Australian Road Rules is a product of an excellent PR campaign through extensive and maximum use of information and communication strategies, strict implementation of key authorities, active participation and support from stakeholders, and continuous evaluation. In return, the Australian Road Rules became a model of road safety policy not only in Australia but in some parts of the globe. It is a safer, more consistent approach to traffic regulation, promote courtesy, and are easier to understand and obey for all road users. Looking on James Grunig’s four models of PR practice in general perspectives, it can be considered that each model is used at a certain position and degree. But in specific perspective, it mainly used the two-way symmetrical communication.
Press agentry – this model relates to a communication program that attempt to encourage publicity, especially in the mass media. To some point, the campaign applied this model when they use communication materials (e.g. media backgrounders) to establish awareness among people through faster vehicles of communication. There is a deliberate and immediate attempt to establish awareness and eventually gain attention about the intended output. Thus, press agentry seems to be a primary action. There is also the intention to persuade and influence the target audience to act based on organizational power.
Public information model – this model is based on the application of “journalists in residence” to circulate relevant and relatively objective information through the mass media and controlled media such as newsletters, brochures, and direct mail. The campaign used letterbox booklets, brochures, flyers, media releases, advertorials, and progress reports among others. The journalistic attribute, which is communicating a message through written outputs, is used. Information dissemination through print media techniques is among the key determinants of this model.
It is argued that these two PR models are one-way in nature. This means that they describe communication initiatives or programs without research and strategic planning. On the case of the Australian Road Rules, this is not seen as the campaign is based on extensive research and strategic planning as well as implementation. The two previously mentioned models are also asymmetrical in nature as they mainly attempt to create a reputable and good image of an organization based on propaganda (press agentry) or by disseminating only favorable information (public information). This is not seen, however, on the case of the Australian Road Rules.
Two-way asymmetric communication – this is considered as more sophisticated approach as compared to the previous models. Pratt and Lennon (2001) consider that an increase in sophistication of the PR process calls for deducing action plans as alternatives for program objectives. This is supported by the presence and application of research in order to develop messages that are directed to the target audiences and with deliberate goal of persuasion and to behave based on organizational power. Indeed, the campaign is based on research as it looked on strategic and educational issues before creating strategies. Most researchers consider two-way asymmetrical communication – like press agentry and public information – is less effective (Grunig et al. 1992, 18).
Two-way symmetric communication – this is the model in which research is also done but with special attention given on management of conflict and improving the knowledge with strategic publics. In the study of Huang (2004), she used Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) consideration that “communication is symmetrical when the public has some effect on it; that is, when the communicator is willing to initiate changes from his or her side” (334). The earlier studies of Grunig (1989) and Grunig and Grunig (1992) emphasize the normative ideal and result in effective PR using the two-way symmetrical communication model for most situations. The case of the Australian Road Rules clearly shows the nature of the two-way symmetrical communication because it centrally catered to issues and came up with strategies that will directly (and even indirectly) require public participation and support. There is the presence of looking on issues and creation of strategies to manage the identified strategic and educational issues. The involvement of the public is very crucial on this model. Because of this model, the campaign succeeded in achieving its objectives and delivered on the target date and specified budget allocation.

• The National Youth Week 2000
The National Youth Week (NYW) 2000 is a national virtual event in Australia that succeeded due to effective PR campaign using a multimedia program to promote the various activities for the Week and similarly provide national attention on these activities. Looking on James Grunig’s four models of PR practice, it can also be considered that the said campaign used each model at a certain point of the campaign and limited extent. It employed the models of press agentry, public information, and two-way asymmetrical communication in its general and initial stages yet specifically ended up using the two-way symmetrical communication. Like the case of the Australian Road Rules, it is research-based (i.e. literature review of topics about youth) and mutual understanding and participation of the organization and target audience or even the general public are obtained. The campaign used web site and effective management. The web site distinctively featured celebrities, a national music competition, a virtual showbag and virtual concert. Among the most remarkable aspects of the campaign are the application of multimedia, integration of youth marketing, presence of sponsorship, and government support. While the Australian Road Rules cater to road safety policy involving a variety of stakeholders, the NYW specifically promotes the ideals of youth and directly appeals to the younger population while similarly gaining support from various aspects of the national population. As Smith (2004) emphasized, a specific PR campaign is supposed to be an intensive effort that is directed to achieving research-based goals in the course of applying relevant and appropriate communication strategies and measuring beneficial outcomes. There is no major differences in the PR practice used in both cases, thus, James Grunig’s models are seen applicable especial the two-way symmetrical communication model.

2. The importance of the consultant’s role: in contrast to in-house practitioner
Public relations is highly valued and recognized as effective means to interact with various internal and external stakeholders at different levels. However, the effectiveness of any PR campaign is based on the ability of the people behind it. The role of the consultant is tantamount to a manager who does planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. Since PR practice is deliberate, the role of the consultant is important because he/she serve as the main framework and the key person behind the materialization of the framework itself. Everything, including processes like decision making and taking or strategy formulation and implementation among others come from his/her power. It is basically the function of the consultant that defines or justifies his/her importance in the success or failure of a specific PR practice or campaign. The Australian In both cases, it is more acceptable if a consultant facilitates each PR campaign rather than an in-house practitioner. This is rooted on the idea of objectivity and credibility. This kind of work calls for the ethical role of the practitioner (Harris 2005). The element of continuity is also considered. Howell and Miller (2006) argue that the unavailability of key public relations personnel and consultants to work on PR campaigns and other initiatives can lead in a misrepresented legal circumstances and communication issues or crises and risking the organization and its management as well as stakeholders and other parties involved.

PART B.
The Role of the Public Relations Practitioner in the Non-profit Sector
Basically, the main idea of public relations is to credibly render a good reputation of a specific organization. It is a perceived and universal idea that a good reputation is one of the major elements for organizational success. As Winkleman (1999) declares, it should be maintained because once it is tarnished; it could be very difficult to regain. If the reputation is lost, regaining it is among the PR man’s job and ultimate challenge. Nakra (2000) stated: “A company's reputation affects its ability to sell products and services, to attract investors, to hire talented staff, and to exert influence in government circles” (p.35). This is applicable to all organizations – profit or non-profit in terms of management. The PR practitioners’ job is to publicize all good attributes and traits to the public and to the target people or organization. Many companies that are profit-oriented have gained enough positive reputation because of effective PR. For instance, ‘Johnson and Johnson’ is respected for its moral and ethical values, established all over the world; while GE is praised for high employee retention (Nakra 2000). Existing facts about the companies do not just go out to the public with just mere benchmarking results. Rather, they are carefully publicized by public relation tactics i.e. disseminated to broadsheets, tabloids, televised press conferences, etc. That is why PR is closely related with corporate branding and governance. The management does the cultivation of the corporate brand, and then PR distributes the improvement and handles issues that are harmful to the company’s image and reputation. But how does PR practice in non-profit organizations differ?
Significant differences in public relations practices have been found in various research studies. In earlier literature, McElreath (1993 cited in McElreath and Blamphin 1994, 81) explored profit organizations and discovered that they engage in more stockholder relations. These organizations, with the application of nonroutine technologies, interacts more in a face-to-face basis. Also, they are highly regulated and spend more time evaluating their public relations. In profit-oriented sectors, corporate brand communication is evident. This is also seen in non-profit sectors but in lesser extent. Corporate brand communication is the building up a reputation of a profit-oriented organization with special attention given on corporate brand. This refers to the overall characteristic of the organization, which provides: marks denoting ownership; image-building devices; symbols associated with key values; means by which to construct individual identities; and a conduit by which pleasurable experiences may be consumed (Balmer and Gray 2003). Corporate brand communicate the brand’s values, afford a means of differentiation from their competitors, and enhance the esteem and loyalty in which the organization is held by its stakeholder groups (Balmer 2001). Thus, marketing and sales strategies are dependent to the strengths or weaknesses of the corporate brands. If the positive values of the corporate brand are successfully publicized by the PR man, then marketing strategies and sales strategies can use that good publicity to the corporation’s advantage. In contrast to non-profit sector, communication is based not on brand but on the nature, objectives, activities, and other advantages of a given organization. Non-profit organizations are also recognized to significantly more likely to make the most of an advertising and/or PR agency on a project-by-project basis. The matter in terms of the relationship of marketing and reputation is the key distinction. Lastly, the consideration of budget is among the main attributes that obviously characterizes a non-profit organization in terms of PR functions as compared to organizations that work towards profit accumulation.

The Differences of In-house PR Practitioner and PR Consultant
A PR practitioner can work in a PR consultancy or an In-house PR department. The differences of the two opportunities are:
• A PR consultant works in an agency that provides guidance and specialist services to clients particularly of big businesses and corporations
• An In-house PR practitioner works exclusively for an organization.
In various literatures like Dyer and colleagues (2002), In-house PR professionals can be clients of PR consultancies who are governed by PR Consultants with full service or specialist offer. In-house PR practitioners are undertakes PR programmes for their own specific organizations. While PR Consultants holds a large team, In-house PR experts have smaller teams to oversee other PR processes like marketing (e.g. advertising and direct marketing).
Furthermore, In-house PR practitioners work in their specified department and have specific tasks. The department in which they work is not subject to PR industry regulations. However, it is possible that In-house PR practitioners within the organization acquired membership or affiliation to any professional and regulatory body. Membership or affiliations ensures individual practitioners to adhere to professional codes of conduct in handling their roles and responsibilities. In certain industries, In-house PR departments and practitioners are governed by other standards or codes related and based on their own specific industry environment.
In general, the nature of work of the In-house PR practitioner and PR Consultant is similar provided that it falls on the idea of public relations – maintaining effective communication between the organization or client and the public. Smith (2004) noted that PR professionals in the workplace are exposed to multitasking as they function particularly in both the technician and the managerial roles. To Smith (2004, 1),
Public relations professionals used to be called upon mainly for tasks such as writing news releases, making speeches, producing videos, publishing newsletters, organizing displays and so on. Now the profession demands competency in conducting research, making decisions and solving problems.

It is supposed that whether or not a PR practitioner works in a consultancy or a exclusive department of an organization, it is still important that such individual is armed with the needed personal and professional knowledge, skill, and abilities in order to perform the challenging role of the public relations practice.


References

Balmer, JMT (2001) ‘Corporate identity, corporate branding and corporate marketing: seeing through the fog’, European Journal of Marketing, 35: 3/4, 248-91

Balmer, JAT and Gray, ER (2003) ‘Corporate brands: what are they? What of them?’ European Journal of Marketing, 37: 7/8, 972-997

Dyer, S, Buell, T, Harrison, M, & Weber, S (2002) ‘Managing Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations’, Public Relations Quarterly, 47: 4, 13-17

Grunig, JE (1989) ‘A Situational Theory of Environmental Issues, Publics, and Activists’, in Huang, Y (2004) 'Is Symmetrical Communication Ethical and Effective?', Journal of Business Ethics, 53: 333-352

Grunig, JE & Grunig, LA (1992) ‘Models of Public Relations and Communication’, in Huang, Y (2004) 'Is Symmetrical Communication Ethical and Effective?', Journal of Business Ethics, 53: 333-352

Grunig, JE & Huang, Y (2000) 'From Organizational Effectiveness to Relationship indicators: Antecedents of Relationships, Public Relations Strategies, and Relationship Outcomes', in Bruining, S. D. & Ledingham, J. A. (eds), Public Relations as Relationship Management: A Relational Approach to the Study and Practice of Public Relations, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 23-53

Grunig, JE & Hunt, T (1984) Managing Public Relations, Holt, Rinehart, Winston, New York

Harris, R (2005) ‘When giving means taking: Public relations, sponsorship, and morally marginal donors’, Public Relations Review, 31: 4, 486-491

Howell, G & Miller, R (2006) ‘Spinning out the asbestos agenda: How big business uses public relations in Australia’, Public Relations Review, 32: 3, Pages 261-266

Lamb, LF & Mckee, KB (2005) Applied Public Relations: Cases in Stakeholder Management, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ

McElreath, MP & Blamphin, JM (1994) ‘Partial Answers to Priority Research Questions -- and Gaps -- Found in the Public Relations Society of America's Body of Knowledge’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 6: 2, 81-100

Nakra, P (2000) ‘Corporate Reputation Management: "CRM" with a Strategic Twist?’ Public Relations Quarterly, 45: 2, 35

Pratt, CB & Lennon, G (2001) ‘What’s wrong with outcomes evaluation’, Public Relations Quarterly, 46: 4, 40

Singh, R & Smyth, R (2000) ‘Australian public relations: status at the turn of the 21st century’, Public Relations Review, 26: 4, 387-401

Smith, R (2004) Strategic planning for public relations, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ

Winkleman, M (1999) ‘The Fickle Finger of Reputation’, Chief Executive, April issue, 79

Management Paper Sample on Walt Disney Company

Comparative Performance

Since the soft launch of Disneyland in Penney Island, Hong Kong, there is more than 11,000 people are visiting Disneyland everyday. Still, the million visitors that came through the amusement park's gates from August 16 averages The figures were released a day after Disney's rival, Ocean Park in Aberdeen, announced a record surplus of HK$119.5 million in the past fiscal year (D. Agostino, 2003). The SAR is Hong Kong Disneyland's majority stakeholder, with 57 percent of the shares. The park was built with HK$25 billion of Hong Kong taxpayers' money - about HK$3,500 per SAR citizen and about 10 times Disney's monetary investment. However, according to the Forbes.com Ocean Park is listed as the 7th world most visited theme park in the world. With its 4.03 million record- breaking year in 2005, Ocean Park ranked the seventh best-attended park in the world.

Most favorite destination in Summer

HK Ocean Park (29%)

HK Disneyland (20%)

HK Wetland Park (13%)

Ngong Ping 360 (8%) (Not officially opened yet)



Don't want to go list:

Ngong Ping 360 (37%) (Not officially opened yet)

HK Disneyland (33%)

HK Wetland Park (22%)

HK Ocean Park (8%)


source: Apple Daily News

Competitive Positioning



In the aspects of competitive positioning, the Walt Disney Company and its media products were chosen due to the following reasons (Hunger and Wheelen, 1996):

* Disneyland is among the most successful company in the theme parks industry.
* Disneyland is a successful corporation in the globalization arena as it was able to provide entertainment products worldwide as well as establish theme parks in Europe and Asia.
* The company is able to use state of the art technology in character designs and movie productions.
* Disneyland is able to create products under a strong and popular brand name.
* The company is able to successfully establish itself in the entertainment industry.


Proposed Improvement Plan

Disneyland and the whole Walt Disney Company is already a large, established and global company. Now, Hong Kong Disneyland, having Ocean Park as a major competitor, only needs to establish and maintain its clientele. According to Kotler (2003), customer relationship marketing enables companies to provide excellent real-time customer service by developing a relationship with each valued customer through the effective use of individual account information. Based on what they know about each customer, companies can customize market offerings, services, programs, messages, and media. Discount and club cards have been a strategy to developed similar loyalty schemes in order to identify and stimulate brand awareness. These database marketing and loyalty programs, the ultimate promotion strategies for the retailer are powerful, highly segmented customer-oriented forms of promotions, encouraging customer retention and purchase activation. One of the most important assets of many firms is the loyalty of its customer base. Measures of sales and market share are useful but crude indicators of what customers really feel about a firm. Measures of customer service and brand loyalty are more sensitive and provide diagnostic value as well. One way of accessing customer needs/wants is to examine customers' complaints and obviously try to respond to them (Kotler, 2003). As far as measurement is concerned, the most important point is that the range of instruments used and their sensitivity are appropriate to the clients under scrutiny.

Marketing communications encompasses wide range of advertising and promotions. Marketing strategies which comes with the marketing communications should be that effective to attract the consumers and be competent enough for the business market on the local and international scenario. When marketing communications and strategies are in concerned,


Competitor's Business Strategy

Ocean Park's theme attractions are the dolphin shows, cable cars and thrill rides and these has been a favorite with several generations of parents and kids ( D' Agostino, 2003). Tourists from mainland China visit Ocean Park. Although, upon the entry of Disneyland in Hong Kong, and Ocean Park will surely look low-tech, Ocean Park can still compete with Disneyland. They will be implementing some strategical measures to remain the most popular theme park in Hong Kong. Ocean Park needs to transform into an attraction that would catch some spill over from Disneyland and be what Sea World is to Disneyland and Disney World. Ocean Park will focus on live animals, not cartoon. Ocean Park will also bring some killer whales, beluga whales, polar bears, penguins, walruses, birds of prey, baby pandas and top thrill rides. By 2010 they will also be featuring a 1.4 kilometer cable car ride over barren hill with breathtaking views of South China Sea, from one of the park to another end. They are also planning to have a city subway system to the entrance of the park.


Performance Improvement

Perhaps, every organisation wants to initiate a management system and strategy that could maintain the organization's capability, strength and competitiveness (Wasko, 2001). Several trends such as globalisation and the advancement of information and communication technologies (ICT) have changed the way people run their lives and how businesses perform their services. These changes have made the competition tougher and business organisation should be able to find a way to cope to these changes in the market environment by enhancing or improving their organisational performance.



The outstanding profitability performance of a growing number of firms is not accidental—these firms profit because they have built world-class management systems. This does not mean that there is anything mechanical or bureaucratic in the way they operate. Quite the opposite; these firms shape their processes and methods so that they work together for high performance. These firms perform well because they are designed to grow in profit, size and management capability (McBride, 2000). Their managers focus on the behaviors, strategies, processes and measures that must work together as a system to find and satisfy customer. There are many factors that can be considered to increase organisational performance, and some experts are considering the concept of performance management.



Managing people may vary in different context and one of which is managing their performance. Management is the process of directing and facilitating the work of people organized in formal groups to achieve a desired goal (Matz Marketing Group, 2002). Management may not be indispensable to group activity, but it is essential in utilizing limited resources to accomplish maximum output, that is, in order to prevent wasted effort by individuals. Without some source of central direction and guidance, individuals in any sizable number can- not work together successfully or efficiently over a sustained period of time. In other words, formal organization of work and a high degree of specialization of labor make management imperative as the means for ensuring performance of any undertaking.



Like many modern management ideas, performance management originated in the United States. From there the concept has spread widely, as organisations look for systems or structures to reinforce their new-found focus on performance. In some cases, performance management has been just a new name for 'Management by Objectives' (MBO), where individual employees are assigned performance targets cascaded down from departmental or organisational goals (Martz Marketing Group, 2002). Others have used performance management to try to breathe new life into old-style performance appraisal systems which refused to work. Others see performance management as a mechanism for making performance -related pay decisions. Still others see it as a creature of 'new right' management and just another way to exploit workers (Philpott & Sheppard, 1992).



More positively, performance management may be seen as a total approach to managing people and performance. It involves setting performance aims and expectations for the organization as a whole, for each business or operating unit within the organization, and for work groups and individual employees (Hunger and Wheelen, 1996). This framework of performance management is now generally regarded as essential to the success of any system of performance planning and review.


Development Strategy

In business, strategy bridges the gap between policy and tactics. Strategy has been used in business to describe a variety of planning and mental modeling activities with a generally agreed upon purpose of charting a successful course of action for a firm or organization over an extended time frame (Mintzberg, 1994). Mintzberg (1994) argues that strategy emerges over time as intentions collide with and accommodate a changing reality. Thus, one might start with a perspective and conclude that it calls for a certain position, which is to be achieved by way of a carefully crafted plan, with the eventual outcome and strategy reflected in a pattern evident in decisions and actions over time. On the other hand Porter (1996) also argues that strategy is about competitive position, about differentiating yourself in the eyes of the customer, about adding value through a mix of activities different from those used by competitors. However, according to Jonas (2000) strategy defines how those things are going to be achieved; in other words it was been stated that strategy isn't the mission it's the plan that allows the mission to be accomplished. It is better to understand that strategy is about means, a means of relating to how will aims will going to be achieved or how this aims established and the most important thing is that if strategy has many meaning at all it is only in relation to some aim.



Strategic management today is seen in the environment driven strategies of successful firms competing in a diverse market. It is better to understand that strategic management is a necessary process for gaining competitive advantage, requiring the active participation of all functional areas. Furthermore, strategic management is designed to develop an awareness of the processes by which organizations can achieve synergies of the whole through the effective cooperation and interaction of the many departments within an organization (Alkhafaji, 2003).

Implementation

The long term strategies create the brand or the company's awareness and give sales revenue a permanent and continuing boost. Short term strategies build a temporary and immediate revenue boost by giving buyers an incentive to purchase. By applying both long and short term strategies, one can attend to immediate sales goals while building his business reputation and goodwill. Allis (2003) enumerates and evaluates each of the 4 P's:

Product- The management of Hong Kong Disneyland must develop package according to the needs of the niche customers in mind. If the customer's perception of the product or the service will match according to his needs or requirements, then eventually the target will buy and will develop his trust to the product or company. Furthermore, what the potential purchaser in considering buying is their perception of the product/service package, which may be different from an objective evaluation of the package.



Price- Pricing strategy is a conscious decision and forms a very important part in the marketing plan. Charging the price for the products and services should be determined the light of the niche prospect's likely cost-benefit ratio and the financial ability to pay according to the payment terms. Pricing decisions should take into account profit margins and the probable pricing response of competitors. Since Ocean Park is giving family package price, Disneyland might as well give their clients especially families with special discounts in their entrance fee, maybe they can implement a "ride all you can" package for families.



Place- In its business definition, the place is the channel where the product is distributed, sold and received by the potential prospects. Clearly without defining the niche prospects, it is impossible to set up the best distribution channels. The distribution system performs transactional, logistical, and facilitating functions in order to get the product to the target customers efficiently.



Promotion- Publicity or promotion is the probably the toughest section in any Marketing plan. Promotion decisions are those related to communicating and selling to potential consumers. When making promotional decisions, a break-even analysis may be made, since the costs can be large in proportion to the product price. This is useful to know the customer's value in order to know if additional customers are worth the cost of acquiring them.

Improving Planning and Budgeting

Being a worldwide company Disneyland must employ the following plan:

* Broader access to several resources, wider experience in efficient business operation, low-cost strategy and application of information technology.
* More diversified products and services and should to operate in various aspects of the entertainment business such as film, home videos, radio broadcasting, merchandise, television networking and theme parks. The diversification efforts of the company should extended effectively in Hong Kong.
* The company should implement low cost strategy, through this strategy, the corporation will be able to control costs without sacrificing the quality of their products and services. Moreover, the company will have the ability to minimize its financial risks through sharing initial investments overheads with a maximum number of participants outside the company.

Conclusion

Hong Kong Disneyland was able to enter and pave the way to be as one of the most popular theme park in the world. Due to the growing competition in the in the theme parks business, HK Disneyland have been able to adopt various strategies in management that had helped them to overcome certain challenges. Through strategic tools, companies are able to clearly identify its weaknesses and strengths as well as its opportunities and threats.