Social Research Method-- Ethnographic Research (Anthropology)

Section A

1. What are some of the major similarities and differences between qualitative and quantitative research methodologies?

It is recognized that qualitative and quantitative research methodologies have given similarities and differences. However, it is also given that differences are more common than similarities. In terms of similarities, the following are obtained:

• Uses the scientific method in the whole process;
• Both can be very detailed and comprehensive in result;
• Uses ways of sampling;
• Used according to research objectives, problems, and researcher’s field of specialization and intended approach; and
• Sometimes both methods are used in one research.

In terms of differences, qualitative and quantitative research methodologies are contrasted in various aspects. According to Punch (1998), qualitative research methodologies include data that are not in form of numbers while quantitative research methodologies refers to empirical research where the data are in form of numbers. The main difference is in terms of numbers and the use of numerical or statistical tools of measurement. Quantitative research is more objective in nature and concentrates in phenomena as qualitative research is more subjective and focuses on the examination and reflection of perceptions in order to gain knowledge on social and human activities (Collis & Hussey, 2003). Most students think that it is better to use qualitative research method because it is easier to start with, but in the process of analysis, they end up in uncertainty due to inability to recognize how they will analyze data. Meanwhile, quantitative research method is avoided because it the fear that they will not be able to do the correct statistical computations, but in the process of analysis, it is easier because tools of analysis is highly structured. In qualitative research, reality is multiple as seen on by the participants of the study. Quantitative research, on the other hand, is singular and apart from the researcher. Creswell (1994, p. 5) summed the methodologies (research process) into the following:

Qualitative Research Methodology	Quantitative Research Methodology
Inductive process	Deductive process
Mutual simultaneous shaping of factors	Cause and effect
Emerging design – categories identified during research process	Static design – categories isolated before study
Context-grounded	Context-free
Patterns, theories developed for understanding	Generalisations leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding
Accurate and reliable through verification	Accurate and reliable through validity and reliability

3. What is the distinction between a hypothesis and a research question?

A hypothesis is commonly characterized as educated guess. A set of hypotheses are causal explanations or propositions that have at least one independent and one dependant variable but have yet to be tested (Neuman 2003). It is also an idea or proposition which the researcher test using statistical analysis (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 56). At the end of the research process, a hypothesis is either accepted or rejected.

Research question, on the other hand, is also called the research problem or issue. It is the specific subject of inquiry in which the researcher will use chosen methodologies. According to Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 115), identifying s research problem is exploratory and reiterative phase in research. The types of problems that are sought to be answered are used in establishing purpose. It could be said that a hypothesis or set of hypotheses are derived in a research question.

4. Describe some of the sampling techniques that are available to qualitative researchers.

Selecting a sample is a fundamental element in any research inquiry, as according to Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 155). A sample is made up of some of the members of the population. A population may refer to a body of people or to any other collection of items under consideration for research purposes (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 155). A sampling frame is “a list or other record of the population from which all the sampling units are drawn” (Vogt 1993, p. 202). On qualitative research, researchers can use a variety of sampling techniques, but it is argued that most sampling techniques (i.e. random, systematic, stratified, etc.) are designed for numerical studies. For qualitative researchers, the following are applicable: cluster, multistage, snowball or networking, judgemental, and natural sampling techniques (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 158).

Cluster sampling is done through a random selection from a sample frame listing groups of units rather than individual units. All members of the selected group are interviewed or examined. It is a useful approach for face-to-face interviews due to time and economic benefits.

Multistage sampling is used when there is a need to trim down a cluster sample because it is so large. It is the sub-sample of from a given group.

Snowball sampling or networking includes people with experiences on a certain phenomena are chosen and studied as sample. This is particularly evident in phenomenological researches.

Judgemental sampling is similar to snowball sampling, wherein the participants are selected by the researcher depending on the strength of their experience of the phenomena being studied. In here, the researcher makes the decision prior to the start of the survey and does not consider other contacts that may occur in the process of the study.

Natural sampling is evident when the researcher has little influence on the composition of sample. This is fairly common in business researches.

Section B

7. When designing an interview schedule, what are some of the considerations you need to take into account when constructing your questions?

In designing question for an interview (or even survey), it is basically important that the researcher have a substantial background or knowledge on the subject being studied. This is the most primary requisite in order to decide or create appropriate questions. Planning is also important. Qualitative studies that use interview method necessitate that the researcher has an open mind. It is also essential that the researcher is considering the level of understanding or comprehension and the potential audience or participant on mind. According to Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 178), the following are general rules in designing questions.

• Explain the purpose of the interview (or questionnaire) to all the participants.
• Keep questions as simple as possible.
• Avoid jargons or specialist language.
• Ensure that each question has only one meaning by phrasing.
• Avoid vague, descriptive words like ‘small’ or ‘large’.
• Avoid asking negative questions to avoid misinterpretation or conflict of understanding or interest.
• Ask one question at a time.
• Include relevant questions only.
• Include questions that may validate the previous responses.
• Avoid questions with computations.
• Avoid leading or value-laden questions which imply that the required answer might be
• Refrain from offensive or insensitive questions to prevent embarrassment.
• Do not ask questions that seem to be a memory test.
• Keep the interview schedule (or questionnaire) as brief as possible but be sure to include major questions that hold the needed information and achieve research objectives.

9. Describe the key principles of the Grounded Theory approach to qualitative analysis.

Grounded theory is an interpretative method that is “used to describe the world of a person or persons under study” (Stern 1994, p. 273). Since qualitative study focuses on intelligible program recommendations, establish meaning of words where the research setting and design is more natural and personal, this methodology appears to be appropriate. This methodology was originally used in the medical field by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. According to Strauss and Corbin (1990, p. 24), it uses ‘a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon. The findings of the research constitute a theoretical formulation of the reality under investigation, rather than consisting of a set of numbers, or a group of loosely related themes’. In here, the theory is generated by the observations rather than being decided earlier in the study. The purpose of this theory is to build theory that is faithful to and which illuminates the area under study (Collis & Hussey 2003, p. 73). It also intends to arrive in the formulation of practical recommendations that can be used by the subjects under study. The theoretical framework is developed by alternating inductive and deductive thought of the researcher. It is in this inductive/deductive approach and the constant reference to the data that helps ground the theory. Silverman (1993, p. 46) summarized the key principles of the grounded theory in three and supposed to be germane in qualitative analysis. The three stages are the following:

• An initial attempt to develop categories which illuminate the data
• An attempt to ‘saturate’ these categories with many appropriate cases in order to demonstrate their importance
• Developing these categories into more general analytic frameworks with relevance outside the setting.

On the contrary, the grounded theory approach has several problems including the difficulty in dealing with the considerable amount of data, similar that of qualitative, which is generated in the course of the study. Also, the problem in the generalisability of the findings is present at hand.

10. What is meant by the term “reflexivity” in ethnographic writing? What are some of the pros and cons of reflexivity? When might it be considered inappropriate to include reflexive material in a piece of writing?

Reflexivity is defined as “a turning back on oneself, a process of self-reference” (Davies 1999, p. 4). Wilson (2001, p. 566) considered it as the guiding concept in monograph and central in the process of ethnographic fieldwork and writing as it refers to awareness of how self and the process of research affect knowledge collection. The pros of reflexivity in ethnographic writing include the probability of the researcher to have a room for revalidation of the findings derived from the study in relation to his/her personal judgment or cause-and-effect cycle, the challenge of further related studies in relation to the unexplored sections of the research with overall improved reflection on the conditions of knowledge building, the assurance of feedback particularly of positive feedback, and the overall effect that contributed to the existing knowledge in the field of inquiry. The cons of reflexivity vary as according to Nagel (1961), it offers a problem for science particularly in the social sciences in terms of situations like, if a prediction can create and lead to changes in the system in which it is made in relation to, the tendency is that it becomes tricky to assess scientific hypotheses in comparison to the actual events that had occurred. Flanagan (1981) and other critics argued that reflexivity complicates all three of the traditional roles – that is – explanation, prediction and control, which are in general played by a classical science. Also, it raises the issue on the question about the nature of social science in terms or in contrast to other scientific fields. Reflexive materials are considered inappropriate on cases where relative phenomenon occurs and when it poses information revolution among societies and people affected. Reflexivity may be a problem or solution in terms of irrelativeness in topics or specific field of sciences. It could be considered that anthropological/sociological research is a political act, and it is so in multiple ways – and so as reflexivity.

Section C

13. You are a post-graduate student wanting to conduct ethnographic research on health issues in rural Australia.

1. Design a research question on your selected topic.

What are the most common health issues in rural Australia particularly in Adelaide, Southern Australia that affect population growth?

2. Describe how you would negotiate access to your field site and how you would source participants.

Initially, causal planning is deliberate. As researcher, I will negotiate access to my field site by relating to key figures and building up my linkage or connections of people particularly heads of communities, agencies, and other stakeholders that may help in the overall study process. Cooperation with other relevant individuals and institutions is very helpful. Establishing contact is also vital. I will send letters or pay a visit to the aforementioned stakeholders informing the purpose, duration, benefits, and other relevant information pertaining to the intended research study and wait for their approval. Formal communication is the basic mode of access as every action is bounded on legitimate process of communication (e.g. letters, request, authorizations, etc). In terms of sourcing participants, the help of the identified relevant stakeholders is indispensable. Their given guidance and knowledge on people, places, and circumstances will serve as primary consideration in locating participants for the research. On some cases, initial or pre-inquiry where I already have previous study and collected relevant knowledge about the intended participants, is an option. Public announcement is also considered granted that basic and most important information is provided. Direct interaction can be useful also.

3. Discuss the research techniques you would employ to conduct your ethnography.

Like any other research study, a research plan is necessary in the commencement of the research process. A proposal stating the topic, objectives, problem and methods of the research is passed and validated by legitimate or authorized individuals or institutions. Upon approval, the researcher must see to it that the necessary materials are present at hand. The research methodologies and approaches to be used in the course of the study are inherent and dependent on the research proposal or plan. In the given case above, the combination of qualitative and quantitative research approaches are to be used. The quantitative side tackles the most common health issues in the area specified, while the qualitative side caters on the effect on population growth. Survey is used on the identification of most common health issues and interview is directed to credible sources. Survey questionnaire is created involving close-ended questions based on the initial knowledge the researcher have at hand. This is to ensure immediate facilitation of data, time and cost advantages. The interview questions are also derived in the initial knowledge of the researcher and may follow the pattern of the survey interview. In terms of analysis, correlation is a possible statistical tool measurement to be used in identifying the effect of the most common health issues in population growth. In drawing generalizations, conclusion, and recommendation, the findings of the study is the main consideration.

References

Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business Research, 2nd Edition, New York: Palgrave.

Creswell, J. W. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Davies, C. A. 1999) Reflexive Ethnography: A Guide to Researching Selves and Others, New York: Routledge.

Flanagan, O. J. (1981) Psychology, progress, and the problem of reflexivity: a study in the epistemological foundations of psychology, Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 17, pp. 375-386.

Nagel, E. (1961) The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation, New York: Harcourt.

Neuman, W.L. (2003) Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Fifth Edition, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Punch, K. F. (1998) Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, London: Sage.

Silverman, D. (1993) Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods of Analysing talk, Text and Interaction, London: Sage.

Stern, P. N. (1994) Eroding Grounded Theory in Morse, J. M. (ed.) Qualitative Research Methods, Thousand Oaks: Sage, pp. 212-23.

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, Newbury Park: Sage.

Vogt, W. P. (1993) Dictionary of Statistics and Methodology, London: Sage.

Wilson, T. D. (2001) A Review of Charlotte Aull Davies' Reflexive Ethnography: A Guide to Researching Selves and Others, New York: Routledge, 1999. American Anthropologist, Vol. 103, No. 2 (June 2001), pp. 566-567.